Prophets, "False Prophets," and the African state: Emergent issues of religious freedom and conflict

New Religious Movements in the Twenty-First Century: Legal, Political, and Social Challenges in Global Perspective

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 151-178

  Hackett, Rosalind I J ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84900266555     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203508329     Document Type: Chapter

References (127)

1. See Terence O. Ranger, "Religious Movements and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa," African Studies Review 29:2 (1986): 1-69;
2. Rosalind I. J. Hackett, ed., New Religious Movementsin Nigeria (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987).
3. See, e.g., Mike Osunde and Ifedayo Sayo, "Edo Passes Law against Cultism in School, Service," Guardian Online, 7 December 2000.
4. See J. D. Van der Vyver, "Religious Freedom in African Constitutions," in Proselytization and Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im (Maryknoll, NY:Orbis, 1999), 109-43.
5. See Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im and Francis M. Deng, eds., Human Rights in Africa: Cross Cultural Perspectives (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1990);
6. Louise Pirouet,"The Churches and Human Rights in Kenya and Uganda since Independence," in Religionand Politics in East Africa: The Period Since Independence, eds. Holger Bernt Hansen and Michael Twaddle (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1995), 158.
7. See J. Kilian, ed., Religious Freedom in South Africa, vol. 44 (Pretoria: University of South Africa, 1993);
8. J. M. Waliggo, "The Role of Christian Churches in the Democratisation Process in Uganda 1980-1993," in The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa, ed. Paul Gifford (Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1995), 217-18;
9. Malory Nye, Multiculturalism and Minority Religions in Britain: Krishna Consciousness, Religious Freedom, and the Politics of Location (London: Curzon, 2001).
10. See Rosalind I. J. Hackett, Mark Silk, and Dennis Hoover, eds., Religious Persecution as a U.S. Policy Issue (Hartford, CT: Center for the Study of Religion in Public Life, 2000).
11. Paul Marshall, Their Blood Cries Out (Dallas: Word Publishing, 1997);
12. Nina Shea, In the Lion's Den (Nashville; Broadman and Holman Publishers, 1997). I have seen copies of thesebooks circulating in Kenya, Nigeria, Ghana, and South Africa.
13. See also his more recent report, Paul Marshall, ed., Religious Freedom in the World: A Global Report on Persecution and Freedom (New York: Broadman and Holman, 2000). As I was writing this article, the newbook, Today's Martyrs, by religious statistician and editor of the World Christian Encyclopedia, David B. Barrett, was being announced.
14. Dale F. Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson, eds., New Media in the Muslim World: The Emerging Public Sphere (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999).
15. Cf. Richard Joseph, ed., State, Conflict, and Democracy in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynn Rien-ner, 1999); Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im, "Competing Claims to Religious Freedom and Communal Self-Determination in Africa," in Proselytization and Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed. An-Na'im, 9.
16. Harold W. Turner sought to collate these works through his Centre for the Study of New Religious Movements, first at the University of Aberdeen, then at Selly Oak Colleges in Birmingham, United Kingdom. See, for example, his now dated bibliography on Africanmovements, Bibliography of New Religious Movements in Primal Societies, vol. 1, Black Africa (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1977). Adrian Hastings bemoans the lack of a satisfactory overallstudy of NRMs in Africa. His own bibliography is very helpful, despite the fact that he doesnot go beyond 1950, and his general antipathy toward and hence non-inclusion of) social science accounts. See Adrian Hastings, The Church in Africa 1450-1950 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 669-76.
17. See Paul Gifford, African Christianity: Its Public Role (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1998) for an excellent example of the type of scholarship needed on religion in Africa. Max Assimeng's Saints and Social Structures (Legon, Ghana: Ghana Publishing Company, 1986) is an earlier sociological analysis of NRMs in West and Central Africathat is both comparative and well-researched.
18. Adrian Hastings, The Church in Africa 1450-1950, 104-108;
19. J. K. Thornton, The Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatrix Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684-1706 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
20. Wyatt MacGaffey, Modern Kongo Prophets: Religion in a Plural Society (Bloomington, IN:Indiana University Press, 1983).
21. Jim Kiernan, "The African Independent Churches," in Living Faiths in South Africa, eds.Martin Prozesky and John de Gruchy (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), 118f.
22. See also the extensive literature on the Watchtower and Kitawala movements, G. Shepperson and T. Price, Independent African: John Chilembwe and the Origins, Setting and Significance ofthe Nyasaland Native Rising of 1915 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1958)
23. Karen E. Fields, Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985).
24. See, for example, J. D. Y. Peel, Aladura: A Religious Movement among the Yoruba (London:International African Institute, 1968);
25. Adrian Hastings, The Church in Africa, 493-539;
26. G. C. Oosthuizen and Irving Hexham, eds., Afro-Christian Religion at the Grassroots in South Africa (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991);
27. Jim Kiernan, "The African Independent Churches," in Living Faiths in South Africa, eds. Martin Prozesky and John DeGruchy (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), 116-28.
28. Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban: Muslims and West African Pluralism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997);
29. Sulayman S. Nyang, "Islamic Revivalism in West Africa:Histor-ical Perspectives and Recent Developments," in Religious Plurality in Africa: Essays in Honour of John S. Mbiti, eds. Jacob K. Olupona and Sulayman S. Nyang (Berlin: Mouton deGruyter, 1993), 231-72;
30. David Westerlund and Eva Evers Rosander, eds., African Islam and Islam in Africa: Encounters Between Sufis and Islamists (London: Hurst, 1997).
31. Rosalind I. J. Hackett, "Revitalization in African Traditional Religion," in African Traditional Religions in Contemporary Society, ed. J. K. Olupona (New York: Paragon House, 1991), 135-48.
32. See Cynthia Hoehler-Fatton, Women of Fire and Spirit: History, Faith, and Gender in Rojo Religion in Western Kenya (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
33. In South Africa alone, 4,500 names of African independent churches were discovered in the1996 census. See Marjorie Froise, South African Christian Handbook (Welkom, South Africa: Christian Info, 2000), 64-65.
34. Cf. Harvey Cox, Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Pentecostal Spirituality and the Reshaping of Religion in the Twenty-first Century (London: Cassell, 1996), 243-62.
35. Cf. Hannah W. Kinoti, "Religious Fragmentation in Kenya," in Proselytization and Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed. An-Nafim, 268-90;
36. D. R. Boschman, "Religious Freedom in Botswana: The Cases of the Zion Christian Church and the Nazareth Church of Botswana," in African Independent Churches Today: Kaleidoscope of Afro-Christianity, ed.M. C. Kitshoff (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996), 37-50.
37. J. N. K. Mugambi, "African Churches in Social Transformation," Journal of International Affairs 50:1 (1996): 194-220, 205.
38. Johan W. Claasen, "Independents Made Dependents: African Independent Churches and Government Recognition," Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 91 (June 1995): 15-34.
39. Matthew Schoffeleers, "Healing and Political Acquiescence in African Independent Churches," in Religion and Politics in Southern Africa, eds. Carl F. Hallencreutz and Mai Palmberg (Uppsala, Sweden: Scandanavian Institute of African Studies, 1991), 89-108;
40. cf.Jean Comaroff, Body of Power, Spirit of Resistance (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1985).
41. Bengt Sundkler, "African Independent Churches and their Political Roles," in Religion and Politics in Southern Africa, eds. Hallencreutz and Palmberg, 87.
42. In the new edition of the World Christian Encyclopedia edited by David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Survey of Churches and Religions, a.d. 3-a.d. 2200 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), Barrettclaims that those believing in and practicing such spiritual gifts as healing and speaking intongues continue to be the fastest-growing segment of Christianity. Africa numbers 126 million who consider themselves to be Pentecostal or charismatic. See religiontoday.com (viewed 14 August 2000). Daneel contests the conflation and inflation of these figures on Pentecostalism in South Africa.
43. See Marthinus L. Daneel, African Initiated Churches in Southern Africa: Protest Movements or Mission Churches? Vol. 33 (Boston: African Humanities Program, African Studies Center, 2000), 7. Gifford rightly indicates that perhaps South Africa, because of its later political liberation, is the only place in Africa where the older-style independent churches still flourish.
44. See Gifford, African Christianity, 325. That not with standing, they are still marginalized. For example, at the conference of Christian World Communions held in Johannesburg in October 2000 they were not invited but metwith separately. See "Christian World Communions Begin Conference," Panafrican News Agency, 23 October 2000. However, the South African Council of Churches is reconsideringits membership procedures because of new trends in application for membership, notablyfrom the African Independent Churches. Also it is not uncommon now for the South African president to go on official visits to the larger independent churches. Information from Robert Papini, 17 November 2000.
45. Paul Gifford, African Christianity, 334.
46. Ruth Marshall, "Power in the Name of Jesus," Review of African Political Economy 52 (1991): 21-37.
47. In fact, Gifford, African Christianity, 245, 334, argues that the label of "sect" is inappropriatefor these groups as they are not breaking away from power but seeking to become part ofthe establishment in many cases.
48. As stated unambiguously by the founder of the Abundant Life Church in Uganda, "[A]ny President with any sense would welcome born-again churches. We pray for them," Gifford, African Christianity, 174. There are naturally exceptions. Dr. Mensa Otabil, founder andsenior pastor of the International Central Gospel Church in Accra, Ghana, has establishedhimself as a thoughtful critic of Ghana's post-independence phase.
49. See Temitope Ogunjinmi, "Profile:A Fiery Priest," The News (Lagos), 14 June 1999.
50. Cf. Marat Shterin, "Legislating on Religion in the Face of Uncertainty," in Law and Informal Practices in Russia, eds. J. Callaghan and M. Kurkchian (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001).
51. A relevant example here would be the radical Islamic movement in northern Nigeria, known as Maitatsine, which clashed with political and religious authorities in the late1970s. Property was damaged and hundreds of lives were lost. There is also the recent caseof the alleged killing of the popular Prophet Eddy Nawgu (Edwin Okeke) in Onitsha, Nigeria, in late 2000. See Geoffrey Ekenna, "Death of a Miracle Man," Newswatch (Lagos), 11 December 2000, 23, 32. Although popular with many for his divinatory skills and community-building activities, Prophet Eddy was reportedly involved in clashes with the Roman Catholic Church, the police, and local vigilantes over his criminal exploits. He was even thesubject of a 1993 book, Truth and the Oracle at Nawgu (Nigeria: Hanoby Books, 1993), by auniversity lecturer, Anene Obianyido, who claimed that Okeke was guilty of numeroushuman rights abuses.
52. David Throup, " 'Render Unto Caesar the Things That are Caesar's': The Politics of Church-State Conflict in Kenya 1978-1990, " in Religion and Politics in East Africa, eds.Hansen and Twaddle, 143-76;
53. Formed in 1965 by Ngonya wa Gakonya, the Tent of the Living God changed its name in1988 from the Church of the Living God. It was deregistered by the Kenyan government in February 1990, which deemed it a source of disunity and anti-government sentiments (The Weekly Review [Nairobi], 16 February 1990). For details of continued harassment, see Edward Miller, "Kenya Wary as Traditional Religions Are Revived," Washington Times, 24 August 2000.
54. See also Grace Nyatugah Wamue,"Mungiki Movement: Religion or Cult?" paper presented at the African Association for the Study of Religions regional conference, Nairobi, July 1999.
55. Murthui Mwai, "What makes Mungiki tick?" Daily Nation (Nairobi), 23 October 2000.
56. Although it is interesting to note that Mungiki now features on several cult-watch websitesin North America and Europe, such as the Apologetic Index and the Ross Institute for the Study of Destructive Cults, Controversial Groups and Movements (www.gospelcom.net and www.rickross.com). In contrast, the most recent U.S. State Department Annual Report on International Religious Freedom (2002) refers to Mungiki as follows: "a small, controversial, cultural and political movement based in part on Kikuyu ethnic traditions, which espouses political views and cultural practices that are controversial in mainstream Kenyan society. While religion may have played a role in the formation of the group, observers believe that it is not a key characteristic of the group. The Mungiki do not adhereto any single religion and members are free to choose their own religion; the group includes Muslims and Christians." http://www.state.gOv/g/drl/rls/irf/2002/13839.htm (accessed 3 March 2003).
57. See Human Rights Watch, The Scars of Death: Children Abducted by the Lord's Resistance Army in Uganda (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1997). These accusations continue up tothe present time.
58. See Allan Thompson, "Hope for Child Soldiers: Canada Brokers Deal with Sudan," Toronto Star, 18 September 2000.
59. Gerard Prunier, "Le Mouvement d'Alice Lakwena, un Prophétisme Politique en Ouganda," in L'lnvention Religieuse en Afrique: Histoire et Religion en Afrique Noire, ed.Jean-Pierre Chrétien (Paris: ACCT-Karthala, 1993), 409-30;
60. Heike Behrend, "The Holy Spirit Movement and the Forces of Nature in the North of Uganda 1985-1987," in Religion and Politics in East Africa, eds. Hansen and Twaddle, 59-71;
61. idem, "War in Northern Uganda: The Holy Spirit Movements of Alice Lakwena, Severino Lukoya and Joseph Kony (1986-97)," in African Guerillas, ed. Christopher Clapham (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1998), 107-18. Alice fled to Kenya where it is believed that she has remained since 1987.
62. Heike Behrend, "The Holy Spirit Movement and the Forces of Nature in the North of Uganda 1985-1987," in Religion and Politics in East Africa, eds. Hansen and Twaddle, 69.
63. Gérard Prunier, "Le Mouvement d'Alice Lakwena, un Prophétisme Politique en Ouganda,"in Vlnvention Religieuse en Afrique, ed. Chretien, 428.
64. Kwesi A. Dickson, "The Church and the Quest for Democracy in Ghana," in The Christiann Churches and the Democratisation of Africa, ed. Paul Gifford (Leiden, Netherlands: E. J.Brill, 1995), 265-66.
65. "Jehovah's Witnesses: Are They Really Banned?" Uhuru 2 (1990).
66. Murthui Mwai, "What Makes Mungiki Tick?" Daily Nation (Nairobi), 23 October 2000.
67. Bengt Sundkler, "African Independent Churches and their Political Roles," in Religion and Politics in Southern Africa, eds. Hallencreutz and Palmberg, 86.
68. U.S. Department of State, Report on International Religious Freedom (September 2000), "Kenya," http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/irf/irf(accessed 29 November 2000).
69. Geoffrey Kamali, "Security to Monitor Churches," New Vision, 7 November 2002, available at http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200211080543.html (accessed 8 November) 2002).
70. CIP 28.05.2000, www.shsf.net,www.hrwf.net (accessed 1 June 2000).
71. See Ndombasi Ludiongo, "Rapport Sectes et Pouvoirs Politiques: Aspects Juridiques des Sectes," in Sectes, Cultures et Sociétés: Les Enjeux Spirituels du Temps Présent (Quatrième Colloque Internationale du Centre d'Etudes des Religions Africaines, Kinshasa, 14-21 November 1992) (Kinshasa: Facultés Catholiques de Kinshasa, 1994), 355-74. Also published as Cahiersdes Religions Africaines 27-28, nos. 53-56 (1993-1994) .
72. T. K. Biaya, "Postcolonial State Strategies, Sacralization of Power and Popular Proselytiza-tion in Congo-Zaire, 1960-1995," in Proselytization and Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed. Abdullahi A. An-Na'im (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1999).
73. Article 1 of Lawno.71-0012,31 December 1971. See Ludiongo,"Rapport Sectes et Pouvoirs Politiques," 373-74.
74. www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2002/13820.htm(accessed 6 March 2003).
75. WEA Religious Liberty Commission, "Eritrean government orders shutdown of almost allevangelical churches," HRWF, International Secretariat, 6 March 2002, http://www.hrwf.net/newhrwf/html/eritrea2002.htm.Interestingly, the U.S. State Department report, while criticizing the deterioration of respect for religious freedom in Eritrea during 2001-02, notesthat social tolerance still exists.
76. "Group Cautions on Church Demolition," This Day (Lagos), 20 August 2002, http://al-lafrica.com/stories/printable/200208200119.html (accessed 26 August) 2002).
77. See Klaus Hock, Der Islam-Komplex (Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 1996).
78. "Great Millennium Crusade Kicks Off Today," Post Express (Lagos), 8 November 2000.
79. Joseph Aimienmwon, "Faithfuls Seek Clean Bill Over Joshua's Detention," Post Express(Lagos), 11 September 2000.
80. Anthony Okoro, "Nothing Can Disintegrate Nigeria-Prophet Joshua," P.M. News (Lagos),19 June 2000.
81. Nicholas Ibewuike, "Zambian President to Become Prophet Chiluba,"Panafrican News Agency, 13 November 2000.
82. Johanna Pink, "New Religious Communities in Egypt: Islam, Public Order and Freedom of Belief," presented at the CESNUR International Conference on "Minority Religions, Social Change, and Freedom of Conscience," 20 June 2002, www.cesnur.org/2002/slc/pink.htm.
83. Kevin Ward, "The Church of Uganda Amidst Conflict: The Interplay between Church and Politics in Uganda since 1962," in Religion and Politics in East Africa, eds. Hansen and Twaddle, 82.
84. See, for example, Paul Gifford, The New Crusaders: Christianity and the New Right in Southern Africa (London: Pluto, 1991).
85. For a classic story of a man being duped by a fake prophet, see Anthony Okoro, "Prey to Fake Prayers," P.M. News (Lagos), 13 November 2000.
86. See Stefan Lovgren, "Cults, Some Deadly, Flourish in Africa. Some Governments Fear Groups Will Challenge Their Authority," www.msnbc.com/news/ (accessed 30 March 2000).
87. See Allan Turyaguma, "Ntungamo Bans Night Prayers," New Vision, 21 August 2002, http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200208210289.html(accessed 20 January 2003).
88. Editorial, "Religious Tolerance Imperative," Addis Tribune (Addis Ababa), 3 January 2003, http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200301030327.html(accessed 20 January 2003).
89. U.S. State Department report, "Kenya," www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2002/13839.htm.
90. Interview with Mawulé Kuamvi Kuakuvi, 20 September 2002. The U.S. State Departmentreport notes that no action was subsequently taken, www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2002/13860.htm.
91. This is noted for Cameroon by the U.S. State Department report (2002), http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2002 (accessed 6 March 2003).
92. T. Jeremy Gunn, personal communication, 9 February 2003.
93. "Illegal Sects Banned," Angola Press Agency (Luanda), 24 October 2002, http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200210240600.html (accessed 24 November 2002).
94. See Massimo Introvigne, "Tragedy in Uganda: The Restoration of the Ten Commandmentsof God, a Post-Catholic Movement," www.cesnur.org (accessed on 14 November 2000)
95. Jean-Françxus Mayer, "The Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God: Between Facts and Fiction," report on a research trip to Uganda (unpublished andprivately circulated), 13-23 August 2000. The Ugandan Human Rights Commission produced a periodical report in 2002, The Kanungu Massacre: the Movement for the Restorationof the Ten Commandments of God Indicted, www.uhrc.org/publicationsJ1022501764jKa-nungu%20report-website.htm (accessed 9 October 2002).
96. In addition to the numerouspress reports, local and international, on the movement, of varying reliability, see also, Irving Hexham, "What Really Happened in Uganda?" Religion in the News 3:2 (2000): 7-9.
97. Jossy Muhangia, "Fugitive Cult Boss Arrested," The New Vision (Kampala), 19 July 2000.
98. "Ugandan Doomsday Cult Surfaces in Kenya," Panafrican News Agency, 31 July 2000.
99. It was most likely the group known as Cult Solutions. Information from Massimo Introvi-gne, 18 November 2000. See Massimo Introvigne, "The Secular Anti-Cult and the Religious Counter-Cult Movement: Strange Bedfellows or Future Enemies?" in New Religions and the New Europe, ed. Robert Towler (Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1995), 32-54, for the distinctions between the secular anticult and religious countercult movements.
100. "Exposed, Terror Gang of Kayole," The Nation (Nairobi), 25 October 2000. An additionalincident occurred on 12 November 2000. See "Kenya's Outlawed Sect Members Arrested After Battling Police," Panafrican News Agency, 13 November 2000.
101. Hannah Gakuo, "Women in Demo over Dress Code," Daily Nation (Nairobi), 5 November 2000.
102. "Kenya's Outlawed Sect Members Arrested After Battling Police," Panafrican News Agency,13 November 2000.
103. Namasiku Ilukena, "Zambia Church Banned for 'Satanism'", Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), 9 September 1998. They were banned under section 17 of the Societies Act. Thechurch was founded in 1975 and came to Zambia in 1995.
104. Rosalind I. J. Hackett, "Managing or Manipulating Religious Conflict in the Nigerian Media," in Mediating Religion: Conversations in Media, Religion and Culture, eds. Jolyon Mitchell and Sophia Marriage (Edinburgh: T T Clark, 2003).
105. Namasiku Ilukena, "Zambia Church Banned for 'Satanism'," Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), 9 September 1998.
106. Tervil Okoko, "Religious Bodies Trade Accusations Over Devil-Worship," Panafrican News Agency, 3 October 2000, Nairobi, Kenya, http://allafrica.com/stories/200010030005.html (accessed 24 October 2000).
107. For more general discussion of this phenomenon, see Rosalind I. J. Hackett, "Discours dediabolisation en Afrique et ailleurs," Diogène (UNESCO) 199 (juillet-septembre): 71-91.
108. For a litany of social and economic problems in Nyanza province attributed to "devil wor-ship"(by the Provincial Commissioner himself), see Churchill Otieno, "PC in Devil Worship Claim," The Nation (Nairobi), 11 October 1999.
109. www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/irf/irf_rpt/irf_index.html(accessed 29 November 2000).
110. Otsieno Namwaya, "Dark Forces, Bloody Rituals under Probe," The East African (Nairobi),17 August 1999.
111. "Devil Worship Report the Height of Naivete," The Nation (Nairobi), 13 August 1999.
112. " 'We're Not in Dubious Activities': Eckankar Followers Dispel Rumours," The News (Monrovia), 23 October 2000.
113. Yakubu Musa, "Christianity Started As a Cult, Says Ige," This Day (Lagos), 19 November 2000.
114. Gifford, African Christianity, 175-76.
115. See, in particular, Birgit Meyer, " 'Delivered from the Powers of Darkness': Confessionsabout Satanic Riches in Christian Ghana," Africa 65:2 (1995): 236-55;
116. idem, Translating the Devil: Religion and Modernity among the Ewe in Ghana (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999).
117. Veronique Faure, "L'occulte et le politique en Afrique du Sud," in Dynamiques religieuses en Afrique australe, idem, 175-205. See also the attribution of recent ethnic clashes in Nigeria to "Satan" by a London-based Nigerian evangelist and writer, Matthew Ashimolowo, PM. News (Lagos), 30 October 2000. He was speaking at a one-week Christian conference that he organized in Nigeria to address "the Satanic forces bent onstifling the country's development." He urged Nigerians to turn to Christ to combat thegovernment's demonstration of "demon-cracy."
118. See the call by Gospel Outreach Fellowship junior pastor, Alex Phiri, to the Zambian government to "come up with criteria to screen and scrutinise churches and their doctrines"and "to help churches acquire land to build more churches." Chisenga Kabuswe, "Church Leaders' Conduct Worries Rev. Chintala," Post of Zambia (Lusaka), 27 October 2000.
119. Rosalind I. J. Hackett, "Radical Christian Revivalism in Nigeria and Ghana: Recent Patternsof Conflict and Intolerance," in Proselytization and Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed. An-Na'im, 246-67.
120. Rosalind I. J. Hackett, "Charismatic/Pentecostal Appropriation of Media Technologies in Nigeria and Ghana, " Journal of Religion in Africa 26:4(1998): 1-19.
121. The Kenyan government has made it clear that campaigns of competitive conversion areconsidered to be divisive and contrary to President Moi's Nyayo philosophy of "peace, loveand unity." Donal B. Cruise O'Brien, "Coping with the Christians: The Muslim Predicament in Kenya," in Religion and Politics in East Africa, eds. Hansen and Twaddle, 209.
122. J. D. Van der Vyver, "Religious Freedom in African Constitutions," in Proselytization and Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed. An-Na'im, 140.
123. Makau Mutua, "Returning to My Roots: African 'Religions' and the State," in Proselytizationand Communal Self-Determination in Africa, ed. An-Na'im, 169-90.
124. Benson Kimathi, "Cults and their Followers," The Nation (Nairobi), 22 April 2000.
125. Cf. Marat Shterin and James T. Richardson, "Effects of the Western Anti-Cult Movement on Development of Laws Concerning Religion in Post-Communist Russia," Journal of Churchand State 42:2 (2000): 247-71.
126. See also Anson Shupe and David Bromley, Anti-Cult Movements in Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York: Garland, 1994).
127. James Beckford, Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to the New Religious Movements (New York: Tavistock, 1985). Interestingly, Bamesa Tshungu notes in his study of Satanic groups ("sectes luciféri-ennes") in Zaïre that several members reported that they were attracted to these movements through the anticult literature of popular authors such as Rebecca Brown.