Seaway to the future: American social visions and the construction of the Panama Canal

Seaway to the Future: American Social Visions and the Construction of the Panama Canal

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-267

  Missal, Alexander ^a  

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References (245)

1. Amy Kaplan, "'Left Alone with America': The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture," in Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993), 11.
2. Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1890-1945 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1984).
3. Bill Brown, "Science Fiction, the World's Fair, and the Prosthetics of Empire, 1910-1915," in Kaplan and Pease, Cultures of United States Imperialism, 129-163. Brown focuses on the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco held to celebrate the opening of the Canal. For a further discussion, see chap. 5.
4. George Frost Kennan, American Diplomacy, 1900-1950 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951).
5. William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (1959; New York: W. W. Norton, 1991). Williams revised his study twice, incorporating the lessons of the Cuba Crisis and the Vietnam War. On his influence, see Bradford Perkins, "The Tragedy of American Diplomacy Twenty-Five Years After," Reviews in American History 12 (March 1984): 1-18, and Lloyd C. Gardner, ed., Redefining the Past: Essays in Diplomatic History in Honor of William Appleman Williams (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 1986).
6. Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1963). His expanded and updated study, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, vol. 2: The American Search for Opportunity, 1865-1913 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993), may be considered the canonized version of The New Empire.
7. Gilbert M. Joseph, "Toward a New Cultural History of U.S.-Latin American Relations," in Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of U.S.-Latin American Relations, ed. Gilbert M. Joseph et al. (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 4.
8. An example of this trend is David Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988).
9. See also Thomas J. McCormick, "Drift or Mastery? A Corporatist Synthesis for American Diplomatic History," Reviews in American History 10 (Dec. 1982): 318-330.
10. See Gerstle Mack, The Land Divided: A History of the Panama Canal and Other Isthmian Canal Projects (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1944)
11. Miles P. DuVal Jr., And the Mountains Will Move: The Story of the Building of the Panama Canal (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1947). Mack was known as a biographer of artists, DuVal was a navy officer. Other works include David Howarth, Panama: Four Hundred Years of Dreams and Cruelty (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), and Donald Gordon Payne [Ian Cameron], The Impossible Dream: The Building of the Panama Canal (New York: William Morrow, 1972). The publication of David McCullough's The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977) was timed perfectly in the midst of the "great debate" on the Canal, but the author notes that he had embarked on his research prior to the controversy (13).
12. Walter LaFeber, The Panama Canal: The Crisis in Historical Perspective (1978; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989). The second edition was published on the occasion of the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Canal's opening.
13. Matthew Parker, Panama Fever: The Battle to Build the Canal (London: Hutchinson, 2007).
14. John Major, Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal, 1903-1979 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993), like Parker's the work of a British historian, deserves the first mentioning. Other general analyses include Michael L. Conniff, Panama and the United States: The Forced Alliance (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), and Almon R. Wright, Panama: Tension's Child, 1502-1989 (New York: Vantage Press, 1990).
15. Alfred Charles Richard Jr., The Panama Canal in American National Consciousness, 1870-1990 (New York: Garland, 1990), 213.
16. J. Michael Hogan, The Panama Canal in American Politics: Domestic Advocacy and the Evolution of Policy (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986). The author is not to be confused with Michael J. Hogan, a prominent scholar of American foreign relations. often based on the general political agenda of the publishing house.
17. Herbert Knapp and Mary Knapp, Red, White, and Blue Paradise: The American Canal Zone in Panama (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984). The Knapps lived in the Canal Zone from 1963 to 1982. They present both their personal recollections as well as a historical sketch of the Canal building, based largely on the Panama authors. For a discussion, see p. 135.
18. Amy Kaplan, The Anarchy of Empire in the Making of U.S. Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 15.
19. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 13-14.
20. Walter Lippmann, Drift and Mastery: An Attempt to Diagnose the Current Unrest (1914; Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 111-112.
21. Warren I. Susman, Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984), xxi.
22. George Cotkin, Reluctant Modernism: American Thought and Culture, 1880-1900 (New York: Twayne, 1992), 103.
23. See Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Theodore Roosevelt and His Time: Shown in His Own Letters (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1920).
24. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), esp. 13, 15, 19.
25. Alun Munslow, Deconstructing History (London: Routledge, 1997), 121.
26. See Robert F. Berkhofer Jr., Beyond the Great Story: History as Text and Discourse (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1995), 63.
27. Alun Munslow, Discourse and Culture: The Creation of America, 1870-1920 (London: Routledge, 1992), 166.
28. See James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 264.
29. See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction [Histoire de la sexualité, I: La volontè de savoir], trans. Robert Hurley (1976; London: Penguin, 1978), 12; Foucault stresses that power is only partially (i.e., locally and tactically) exerted through repression.
30. Alexander de Humboldt, Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain: Translated from the Original French by John Black, vol. 1 (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, 1811), 18.
31. William Crawford Gorgas, Sanitation in Panama (New York: D. Appleton, 1915), 149.
32. See Matthew Parker, Panama Fever: The Battle to Build the Canal (London: Hutchinson, 2007), 160-163.
33. Matt K. Matsuda, Empire of Love: Histories of France and the Pacific (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 57. The author discusses the interpretations of a future canal from a French perspective. See also pp. 68 and 78.
34. Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), 235.
35. J. Michael Hogan, The Panama Canal in American Politics: Domestic Advocacy and the Evolution of Policy (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986), 19. In an isolated chapter of The New Empire, LaFeber discusses the ideas of the expansionists (62-101), but neglects to re-evaluate their complex agenda in his book on the Panama Canal.
36. Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (1890; New York: Dover, 1987).
37. Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Interest of America in Sea Power: Present and Future (1897; Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1970), 25, 124. The book contains a collection of essays published between 1890 and 1897 in prominent magazines.
38. Alfred Thayer Mahan, "The Isthmus and Sea Power," Atlantic Monthly 72 (Oct. 1893), 459, 460.
39. Brooks Adams, The Law of Civilization and Decay: An Essay on History (1896; New York/London: Macmillan, 1898), xi.
40. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 25.
41. Frederick Jackson Turner, "The Problem of the West," Atlantic Monthly 78 (Sept. 1896), 289.
42. Herbert George Wells, The Future in America: A Search for Realities (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1906), 253.
43. Theodore Roosevelt, The Winning of the West, 4 vols. (1889-1896; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995).
44. See John F. Kasson, Houdini, Tarzan, and the Perfect Man: The White Male Body and the Challenge of Modernity in America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001).
45. See Joy F. Kasson, Buffalo Bill's Wild West: Celebrity, Memory, and Popular History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000).
46. James Gilbert, Men in the Middle: Searching for Masculinity in the 1950s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 23-24. Gilbert's study includes a historiography of the most important contributions to the field (15-33).
47. Robert Dallek, "National Mood and Foreign Policy: A Suggestive Essay," American Quarterly 34 (Dec. 1982), 341.
48. See Willis Fletcher Johnson, Four Centuries of the Panama Canal (New York: Cassell, 1907), 345.
49. Charles Harcourt Forbes-Lindsay, The Isthmus and the Canal, rev. ed. (1906; Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1912), 267.
50. George W. Goethals, "The Building of the Panama Canal: Success of Government Methods," Scribner's Magazine 56 (March 1915), 277.
51. Ricardo D. Salvatore, "Imperial Mechanics: South America's Hemispheric Integration in the Machine Age," American Quarterly 58 (Sept. 2006): 665.
52. Charles Francis Adams, The Panama Canal Zone: An Epochal Event in Sanitation (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1911), 8.
53. Philip Curtin, Death by Migration: Europe's Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 159-160.
54. See David McCullough, The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977), 143. The professor suggested that the nation's capitol should be enclosed by a mosquito screen the size of the Washington Monument.
55. Marie D. Gorgas and Burton J. Hendrick, William Crawford Gorgas: His Life and Work (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 1924), 4.
56. Michael L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985), 31. For the official numbers, see also McCullough, Path between the Seas, 610.
57. See John Lindsay-Poland, Emperors in the Jungle: The Hidden History of the U.S. in Panama (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 35.
58. Poultney Bigelow, "Panama-the Human Side," Cosmopolitan Magazine 41 (Sept. 1906): 461. Americans had been using insect screens for decades and exported their habit to Cuba and Panama, while they were almost unknown in Great Britain and its tropical colonies. See Curtin, Death by Migration, 137.
59. John Abbot, Panama and the Canal in Picture and Prose: A Complete Story of Panama, as Well as the History, Purpose and Promise of Its World-Famous Canal-the Most Gigantic Engineering Undertaking since the Dawn of Time (New York: Syndicate, 1913), 259.
60. Frederic Jennings Haskin, The Panama Canal (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 1913), 107.
61. Ira E. Bennett, History of the Panama Canal: Its Construction and Builders (Washington, DC: Historical, 1915), 123.
62. Joseph Bucklin Bishop, "Sanitation on the Isthmus," Scribner's Magazine 53 (Feb. 1913), 234.
63. William Joseph Showalter, "Redeeming the Tropics," National Geographic Magazine 25 (March 1914): 357.
64. Brenda Gayle Plummer, Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 90.
65. Willis Fletcher Johnson, Four Centuries of the Panama Canal (New York: Cassell, 1907), 280.
66. Logan Marshall, The Story of the Panama Canal (Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1913), 7.
67. Frank A. Gause and Charles Carl Carr, The Story of Panama: The New Route to India (Boston: Silver, Burdett, 1912), 159.
68. See Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (1950; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 22-34.
69. Harry Harwood Rousseau, The Isthmian Canal: Presented at the Twentieth Annual Session of the Trans-Mississippi Commercial Congress Held at Denver, Colo., August 16-21, 1909 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1910), 3.
70. Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass: The 1892 Edition (1892; New York: Bantam Books, 1983), 329.
71. Ralph Emmett Avery, America's Triumph at Panama: Panorama and Story of the Construction and Operation of the World's Giant Waterway from Ocean to Ocean (Chicago: Regan Printing House, 1913), 372.
72. Bill Brown, "Science Fiction, the World's Fair, and the Prosthetics of Empire, 1910-1915," in Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993), 148.
73. Ben Macomber, The Jewel City: Its Planning and Achievement; Its Architecture, Sculpture, Symbolism, and Music; Its Gardens, Palaces, and Exhibits (San Francisco: John H. Williams, 1915), 11.
74. Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 240.
75. Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Interest of America in Sea Power: Present and Future (1897; Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1970), 124.
76. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), xiv.
77. John Foster Fraser, Panama andWhat ItMeans (London: Cassell, 1913), 39.
78. See Janet M. Davis, The Circus Age: Culture and Society under the American Big Top (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 210. I would like to thank the author for the reference.
79. Hugh C. Weir, The Conquest of the Isthmus: The Men Who Are Building the Panama Canal-Their Daily Lives, Perils, and Adventures (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909), 86.
80. Logan Marshall, Seeing America: Including the Panama Expositions (Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1915), 129.
81. William James, The Moral Equivalent of War and Other Essays and Selections from Some Problems of Philosophy, Edited and with an Introduction by John K. Roth (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), 12.
82. George W. Goethals, "The Building of the Panama Canal: The Human Element in Administration," Scribner's Magazine 57 ( June 1915): 721.
83. Tracy Robinson, Panama: A Personal Record of Forty-Six Years, 1861-1907 (New York: Star and Herald, 1907), 239, 143.
84. See John Higham, "The Reorientation of American Culture in the 1890s," Writing American History: Essays on Modern Scholarship (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1970), 78-79
85. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 17.
86. Joseph Bucklin and Farnham Bishop, Goethals: Genius of the Panama Canal (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1930), 133, cited in McCullough, Path between the Seas, 464.
87. Ira E. Bennett, History of the Panama Canal: Its Construction and Builders (Washington, DC: Historical, 1915), 419.
88. See F. Jack Hurley, Industry and the Photographic Image: 153 Great Prints from 1850 to the Present (New York: Dover, 1980), 44.
89. See Michael L. Carlebach, American Photojournalism Comes of Age (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997), 19. Jäger, Photographie, 61, criticizes the "myth" that the Kodak quickly became an actual mass product. For an overview of the technological and economic development of early photography, see Reese V. Jenkins, Images and Enterprise: Technology and the American Photographic Industry, 1839 to 1925 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975).
90. See William Welling, Photography in America: The Formative Years, 1839-1900 (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1978), 313. For the impact of the halftone effect, see also Neil Harris, Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 307.
91. Jürgen Martschukat, "The Art of Killing by Electricity: The Sublime and the Electric Chair," Journal of American History 89 (Dec. 2002), 903-904. For an extended analysis see David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1994); and Nicholas Mirzoeff, An Introduction to Visual Culture (London: Routledge, 1999), 16.
92. John Foster Fraser, Panama and What It Means (London: Cassell, 1913), 39.
93. Albert Boime, The Magisterial Gaze (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), n.p.
94. See Martin W. Sandler, American Image: Photographing One Hundred Fifty Years in the Life of a Nation (Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1989), 56. Many of the photographic survey records are held at the National Archives in College Park, Maryland. See The American Image: Photographs from the National Archives, 1860-1960 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1979).
95. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992), 204-205.
96. The rock formation was located on Jefferson's property in Rockbridge County. He termed it "the most sublime of nature's works." See Thomas Jefferson, "Notes on the State of Virginia," in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Penguin Books, 1975), 54.
97. William Culp Darrah, The World of Stereographs (Gettysburg, PA: W. C. Darrah, 1977), 141.
98. See Jacob A. Riis, Theodore Roosevelt the Citizen (New York: Outlook, 1904).
99. See Thomas Southall, "White Mountain Stereographs and the Development of a Collective Vision," in Earle, Points of View, 104-105, and Krauss, "Photography's Discursive Spaces," 291.
100. Edward W. Earle, "The Stereograph in America: Pictorial Antecedents and Cultural Perspectives," in Earle, Points of View, 19-20. For a discussion of colonial stereographs, see also Jim Zwick, ed., Stereoscopic Visions of War and Empire, originally published at http://www.boondocksnet.com/stereo/colonies .html, which was shut down in Aug. 2007.
101. Peter Bacon Hales, "American Views and the Romance of Modernization," in Sandweiss, Photography in Nineteenth Century America, 250.
102. See Enrico Sturani, "Das Fremde im Bild: Überlegungen zur historischen Lektüre kolonialer Postkarten," Fotogeschichte 21, no. 79 (2001): 20.
103. Cited in Hugh C. Weir, The Conquest of the Isthmus: The Men Who Are Building the Panama Canal-Their Daily Lives, Perils, and Adventures (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909), 155.
104. "The President Climbs a Canal Steam Shovel," New York Times, Nov. 17, 1906, p. 1.
105. Bill Brown, "Science Fiction, the World's Fair, and the Prosthetics of Empire, 1910-1915," in Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993), 139.
106. Ernest Hallen, The New Pacific Fleet: Through the Panama Canal, July 1919 (Newark, NJ: Panama Pictorial, 1919). Basic facts on Hallen are provided by William Friar, Portrait of the Panama Canal: From Construction to the Twentieth Century, rev. and updated ed. (Portland, OR: Graphic Arts Center, 1999), 4, 31, as well as James L. Shaw, Ships of the Panama Canal (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1985), 1, 8.
107. Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Secretary, Isthmian Canal Commission, to Goethals, Aug. 19, 1907; Official Photographs; Policy, Records, Instructions to Photographers, Etc.-General, File 56-A-7, part 1, GC 1904-14, RG 185, NACP.
108. The major publications examined were John Abbot, Panama and the Canal; Ralph Emmett Avery, America's Triumph at Panama: Panorama and Story of the Construction and Operation of the World's Giant Waterway from Ocean to Ocean (Chicago:Regan Printing House, 1913);
109. Bennett, History of the Panama Canal; Farnham Bishop, Panama Past and Present (New York: Century, 1913);
110. Joseph Bucklin Bishop, The Panama Gateway (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913); Bullard, Panama;
111. Charles Harcourt Forbes-Lindsay, Isthmus and the Canal, rev. ed. (1906; Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1912);
112. Harry A. Franck, Zone Policeman 88: A Close Range Study of the Panama Canal and Its Workers (New York: Century, 1913);
113. Frank A. Gause and Charles Carl Carr, The Story of Panama: The New Route to India (Boston: Silver, Burdett, 1912);
114. Frederic Jennings Haskin, The Panama Canal (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 1913);
115. Willis Fletcher Johnson, Four Centuries of the Panama Canal (New York: Cassell, 1907);
116. Logan Marshall, The Story of the Panama Canal (Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1913);
117. William Rufus Scott, The Americans in Panama (New York: Statler, 1912); and Weir, Conquest of the Isthmus. Forbes-Lindsay used different illustrations than Marshall, even though the texts are largely identical. His and Johnson's books are based on manuscripts written in 1906 and 1907, which may be the reason why they were not yet able to use Hallen's photos. Among others, Forbes-Lindsay relied on the photographer W. A. Fishbaugh, and Johnson used images provided by news syndicates.
118. Michael Adas, Dominance by Design: Technological Imperatives and America's Civilizing Mission (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), 169.
119. Joseph Pennell's Pictures. See J. Michael Hogan, The Panama Canal in American Politics: Domestic Advocacy and the Evolution of Policy (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986), 46;
120. Alfred Charles Richard Jr., The Panama Canal in American National Consciousness, 1870-1990 (New York: Garland, 1990), 217.
121. The standard biography was written by Pennell's wife, Elizabeth Robins Pennell, The Life and Letters of Joseph Pennell (Boston: Little, Brown, 1929).
122. J. B. Bishop, Panama Gateway, 212.
123. J. B. Bishop, Panama Gateway, 312.
124. See Harvey Green, "Pasteboard Masks: The Stereograph in American Culture, 1865-1910," in Earle, Points of View, 113.
125. S. M. Smith, American Archives, 4.
126. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995), 44.
127. Hugh C. Weir, With the Flag at Panama: A Story of the Building of the Panama Canal (Boston: W. A. Wilde, 1911), 6. This second book by Weir is a fictionalized account of the Canal building.
128. John Foster Carr, "The Panama Canal, History-Conditions-Prospects," Outlook, April 28, 1906, 963.
129. Hugh C. Weir, The Conquest of the Isthmus: The Men Who Are Building the Panama Canal-Their Daily Lives, Perils, and Adventures (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1909), 9.
130. John Abbot, Panama and the Canal in Picture and Prose: A Complete Story of Panama, as Well as the History, Purpose and Promise of Its World-Famous Canal-the Most Gigantic Engineering Undertaking since the Dawn of Time (New York: Syndicate, 1913), 321.
131. Arthur Bullard [Albert Edwards], Panama: The Canal, the Country and the People, rev. ed. with additional chapters (1911; New York: Macmillan, 1914), 569.
132. Farnham Bishop, Panama Past and Present (New York: Century, 1913), 196. This credit system was not unusual for workers' towns run by railroads and mining corporations. It was also used by the Suez Canal Company.
133. See Zachary Karabell, Parting the Desert: The Creation of the Suez Canal (London: John Murray, 2003), 163.
134. F. Bishop, Panama Past and Present, 199.
135. For overviews of this development see Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York: Pantheon Books, 1989);
136. Simon J. Bronner, ed., Consuming Visions: Accumulation and Display of Goods in America, 1880-1920 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989);
137. T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994).
138. William Rufus Scott, The Americans in Panama (New York: Statler, 1912), 190.
139. See also Frederic Jennings Haskin, The Panama Canal (Garden City, NY:Doubleday, Page, 1913), 166.
140. See Joseph Bucklin Bishop, The Panama Gateway (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913), 280.
141. Ira E. Bennett, History of the Panama Canal: Its Construction and Builders (Washington, DC: Historical, 1915), 170.
142. For a similar analysis of tourism, see James B. Gilbert, Perfect Cities:Chicago's Utopias of 1893 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 21.
143. Mary L. McCarty, Glimpses of Panama and the Canal (Kansas City:Tiernan-Dart, 1913), 130.
144. See Katherine Emma Manthorne, Tropical Renaissance: North American Artists Exploring Latin America, 1839-1879 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989), 11
145. Stephen Frenkel, "Jungle Stories: American Representations of Tropical Panama," Geographical Review 86 ( July 1996): 324.
146. Charles Francis Adams, The Panama Canal Zone: An Epochal Event in Sanitation (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1911), 7.
147. See Michael L. Conniff, Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904-1981 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985), 30.
148. Logan Marshall, The Story of the Panama Canal (Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1913), 150.
149. A. W. Wyndham, The Panama Canal (New York: Howard F. Curtis, 1907), 27.
150. Harry A. Franck, Zone Policeman 88: A Close Range Study of the Panama Canal and Its Workers (New York: Century, 1913), 43. He chided the Canal Zone as a place "with outward democracy and inward caste" (221).
151. Alfred B. Hall and Clarence L. Chester, Panama and the Canal (New York: Newson, 1910), 158.
152. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 28.
153. Michael Adas, Dominance by Design: Technological Imperatives and America's Civilizing Mission (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), 155-156.
154. J. B. Bishop, Panama Gateway, 307.
155. Weir, Conquest of the Isthmus, 178. On the women in the Canal Zone, see Paul W. Morgan Jr., "The Role of North American Women in U.S. Cultural Chauvinism in the Panama Canal Zone, 1904-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 2000).
156. Bullard, Panama, 538. He made an almost identical comment in an article for a popular women's magazine. See Arthur Bullard, "The Romance of the Canal," Ladies' Home Journal 31 (Oct. 1914): 93.
157. See Alexander Schmidt, Reisen in die Moderne: Der Amerika-Diskurs des deutschen Bürgertums vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg im europäischen Vergleich (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1997), esp. chap. 1.
158. Henry Kitchell Webster, "Real Socialism," Atlantic Monthly 111 (May 1913): 634.
159. Herbert Knapp and Mary Knapp, Red, White, and Blue Paradise: The American Canal Zone in Panama (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984), 4. The two teachers call the Canal Zone "the world's first workers' paradise-a star-spangled red, white, and blue postcapitalist society that was established while Russia was still groaning under the yoke of the Czar" (3).
160. James B. Gilbert, "Inventing the Twentieth Century," unpublished essay, n.p. The manuscript was provided by the author.
161. Susan Matarese, American Foreign Policy and the Utopian Imagination (Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press, 2001), 14.
162. "Come Muse migrate from Greece and Ionia / . . . For know a better, fresher, busier sphere, a wide, untried domain awaits, demands you." Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass: The 1892 Edition (1892; New York: Bantam Books, 1983), 159. The poem, written in 1871, had been commissioned for an industrial exposition in New York.
163. Cited in Cecilia Elizabeth O'Leary, To Die For: The Paradox of American Patriotism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 160.
164. See Dirk van Laak, Weiße Elefanten: Anspruch und Scheitern technischer Großprojekte im 20. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1999), 32-33.
165. Matt K. Matsuda, Empire of Love: Histories of France and the Pacific (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2005), 51-53.
166. See Thomas P. Hughes, American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, 1870-1970 (New York: Penguin Books, 1989), 367. The general objective was to transform a poverty-stricken valley into a region for economic growth through flood control and hydroelectrical power.
167. John Major, Prize Possession: The United States and the Panama Canal, 1903-1979 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 70.
168. Farnham Bishop, "The End of the Big Job," Century Magazine 85 (Dec. 1912): 274.
169. See George W. Goethals, "The Building of the Panama Canal: Organization of the Force," Scribner's Magazine 57 (May 1915): 538.
170. See Joseph Bucklin Bishop, "The Personality of Colonel Goethals," Scribner's Magazine 57 (Feb. 1915): 134, 145.
171. Theodore Roosevelt, An Autobiography (1913; New York: Da Capo Press, 1985), 543.
172. Frank Morton Todd, The Story of the Exposition: Being the Official History of the International Celebration Held at San Francisco in 1915 to Commemorate the Discovery of the Pacific Ocean and the Construction of the Panama Canal vol. 3 (New York:G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1921), 135.
173. J. B. Bishop, "Personality of Colonel Goethals," 149.
174. F. Bishop, Panama Past and Present, 225-226.
175. On the role of engineers, see David F. Noble, America by Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 33-65;
176. Stefan Willeke, Die Technokratiebewegung in Nordamerika und Deutschland zwischen den Weltkriegen: Eine vergleichende Analyse (Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang, 1995), 31-55;
177. Ruth Oldenziel, Making Technology Masculine: Men, Women and Modern Machines in America, 1870-1945 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999).
178. Ray Stannard Baker, "Frederick W. Taylor-Scientist in Business Management," American Magazine 71 (March 1911): 570.
179. Cited in David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, 1994), 36.
180. Ray Stannard Baker, "The Glory of Panama: How the Big Ditch, Dug on Honor, Is a Great Example of the New Idealism in Public Service," American Magazine 76 (Nov. 1913): 33-37. Additional quotations from this article are cited parenthetically in the text.
181. See Cecilia Tichi, Exposés and Excess: Muckraking in America, 1900/2000 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 3.
182. On Bullard, see Peter Conn, The Divided Mind: Ideology and Imagination in America, 1898-1917 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 98-103
183. Mark Pittenger, American Socialists and Evolutionary Thought, 1870-1920 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993).
184. On the public intellectuals, see Daniel Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998);
185. Brian Lloyd, Left Out: Pragmatism, Exceptionalism, and the Power of American Marxism, 1890-1922 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997);
186. Christopher Lasch, The True and Only Heaven: Progress and Its Critics (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991);
187. Casey Blake, Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990);
188. Walter Benn Michaels, "An American Tragedy, or the Promise of American Life," Representations 5 (Winter 1989): 71-98;
189. Mark Pittenger, "Science, Culture and the New Socialist Intellectuals before World War I," American Studies 27 (Spring 1987): 73-91;
190. James Kloppenburg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870-1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986)
191. James Gilbert, Designing the Industrial State: The Intellectual Pursuit of Collectivism in America, 1880-1940 (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1972).
192. Charles Forcey, The Crossroads of Liberalism: Croly, Weyl, Lippmann, and the Progressive Era, 1900-1925 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), remains important for its wealth of details.
193. Walter Lippmann, Drift and Mastery: An Attempt to Diagnose the Current Unrest (1914; Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 111.
194. Walter Edward Weyl, The New Democracy: An Essay on Certain Political and Economic Tendencies in the United States (1912; New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 276.
195. See Charles P. Steinmetz, America and the New Epoch (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1916).
196. William English Walling and Harry W. Laidler, eds., State Socialism Pro and Con: Official Documents and Other Authoritative Selections-Showing the World-Wide Replacement of Private by Governmental Industry before and during the War (New York:Henry Holt, 1917), 251. A "State Socialist government in Panama" had been established, the authors argued.
197. William English Walling, "State Socialism and the Individual," New Review 1 ( June 1913): 581.
198. On Lippmann, see Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970).
199. See Ronald Schaffer, America in the Great War: The Rise of the War Welfare State (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 120-123. The woman eventually committed suicide.
200. On the impact of the war on American society, see David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980);
201. Neil A. Wynn, From Progressivism to Prosperity: World War I and American Society (New York: London: Holmes and Meier, 1986) and Schaffer, America in the Great War.
202. "Force and Ideas," New Republic, Nov. 7, 1914, 7.
203. "The Landslide into Collectivism," New Republic, April 10, 1915, 250.
204. Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life: With a New Introduction by Scott R. Bowman (1909; New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1993), 168.
205. Louis C. Fraina, "The Socialism of the Sword," New Review, May 15, 1915, 26.
206. See James M. Skinner, France and Panama: The Unknown Years, 1894-1908 (New York: P. Lang, 1989), 277.
207. Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (Glasgow:Fontana, 1976), 49.
208. Edward Bellamy, "Letter to the People's Party," New Nation, Oct. 22, 1892, 645. The quote was part of a speech to be delivered at the founding convention of the People's Party. Due to illness, Bellamy could not attend and instead published the text as a letter in the official magazine of the Nationalist Clubs.
209. Farnham Bishop, Panama Past and Present (New York: Century, 1913), 230.
210. Exceptions are Bill Brown, "Science Fiction, the World's Fair, and the Prosthetics of Empire, 1910-1915," in Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993);
211. Alfred Charles Richard Jr., The Panama Canal in American National Consciousness, 1870-1990 (New York: Garland, 1990), 233-248;
212. Alan Dawley, Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution (Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 2003), 83-92.
213. Robert W. Rydell, John E. Findling, and Kimberly D. Pelle, Fair America:World's Fairs in the United States (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000), 9.
214. For the complex functions of early amusement parks, see John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978).
215. See Marie Bolton, "Recovery for Whom? Social Conflict after the San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, 1906-1915" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Davis, 1997), 1.
216. On this exposition, the first world's fair held on the West Coast, see Arthur Chandler and Marvin Nathan, The Fantastic Fair: The Story of the California Midwinter International Exposition, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, 1894 (St. Paul, MN: Pogo Press, 1993).
217. See Hamilton Wright, "Opening the Panama-Pacific Exposition," Overland Monthly 65 (March 1915): 197-198.
218. See G. Allen Greb, "Opening a New Frontier: San Francisco, Los Angeles and the Panama Canal, 1900-1914," Pacific Historical Quarterly 47, no. 3 (1978): 411.
219. Marjorie M. Dobkin, "A Twenty-Five-Million-Dollar Mirage," in Benedict, Anthropology of World's Fairs, 70. See also Starr, Americans and the California Dream, 296.
220. Benjamin Ide Wheeler, "The Meaning of the Canal," American Review of Reviews 51 (Feb. 1915): 164. Wheeler was president of the University of California and a friend of Roosevelt's.
221. Jesse Lynch Williams, "The Color Scheme at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition," Scribner's Magazine 56 (Sept. 1914): 277.
222. Ben Macomber, The Jewel City: Its Planning and Achievement; Its Architecture, Sculpture, Symbolism, and Music; Its Gardens, Palaces, and Exhibits (San Francisco:John H. Williams, 1915), 45.
223. John Daniel Barry, The City of Domes: A Walk with an Architect about the Courts and Palaces of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, with a Discussion of Its Architecture, Its Sculpture, Its Mural Decorations, Its Coloring and Its Lighting, Preceded by a History of Its Growth (San Francisco: John J. Newbegin, 1915), 61.
224. Bernard R. Maybeck, Palace of Fine Arts and Lagoon: Panama-Pacific International Exposition, 1915 (San Francisco: Paul Elder, 1915), 9. A model for the palace had been Arnold Böcklin's painting Die Toteninsel (The Island of Death).
225. See Rose V. S. Berry, The Dream City: Its Art in Story and Symbolism (San Francisco: Walter N. Brunt, 1915), 24.
226. Juliet James, Palaces and Courts of the Exposition: A Handbook of the Architecture Sculpture and Mural Paintings with Special Reference to the Symbolism (San Francisco:California Book, 1915), 68.
227. Stella G. S. Perry, The Sculpture and Murals of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition: The Official Handbook (San Francisco: Wahlgreen, 1915), 3.
228. Katherine Delmar Burke, Storied Walls of the Exposition (n.p., 1915), 53. Another writer offered the explanation that the figures were of different sex "to indicate the dual nature of man urging him to greater triumph." Perry, Sculpture and Murals, 3-4.
229. Sheldon Cheney, Art-Lover's Guide to the Exposition: Explanations of the Architecture, Sculpture and Mural Paintings, with a Guide for Study in the Art Gallery (Berkeley: At the Sign of the Berkeley Oak, 1915), 44.
230. Eugen Neuhaus, The Art of the Exposition: Personal Impressions of the Architecture, Sculpture, Mural Decorations, Color Scheme and Other Aesthetic Aspects of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: Paul Elder, 1915), 32.
231. John Daniel Barry, The Meaning of the Exposition (San Francisco: H. S. Crocker, 1915), 19.
232. Official Guide of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition San Francisco 1915, June ed. (San Francisco: Wahlgreen, 1915), 34.
233. Official Guide of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition San Francisco 1915, Sept. ed. (San Francisco: Wahlgreen, 1915), 33.
234. William MacDonald, "The California Expositions," Nation, Oct. 21, 1915, 491.
235. Franklin K. Lane, "A City of Realized Dreams," National Geographic Magazine 27 (Feb. 1915): 170.
236. Edith K. Stellman, "With the Crowd at the Panama-Pacific Exposition," Overland Monthly 65 ( June 1915): 519.
237. Bently Palmer, "World's Advance Shown in Exhibits," Overland Monthly 66 (Aug. 1915): 110.
238. B. Brown, "Science Fiction," 142-143.
239. B. Brown, "Science Fiction," 146.
240. Charles C. Moore, "'San Francisco Knows How!': An Answer to the World's Question: 'Can This Exposition Be Different?'" Sunset Magazine 28 ( Jan. 1912): 6.
241. B. Brown. "Science Fiction," 150.
242. The Legacy of the Exposition: Interpretation of the Intellectual and Moral Heritage Left to Mankind by the World Celebration at San Francisco in 1915 (San Francisco:n.p., 1916), 62.
243. "The European War and the Panama-Pacific Exposition-A Monumental Contrast," Current Opinion 58 (May 1915): 315.
244. On the 1939-1940 fair in San Francisco, see Lisa Rubens, "Representing the Nation: The Golden Gate International Exposition," in Rydell and Gwinn, Fair Representations, 121-139
245. Robert W. Rydell, "The 1939 San Francisco Golden Gate International Exposition and the Empire of the West," in The American West as Seen by Europeans and Americans, ed. Rob Kroes (Amsterdam:Free University Press, 1989), 342-359.