Success without victory: Lost legal battles and the long road to justice in America

Success Without Victory: Lost Legal Battles and the Long Road to Justice in America

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-319

  Lobel, Jules ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

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EID: 84900145429     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (437)

1. Jack Greenberg, "Litigation for Social Change: Methods, Limits and Roles in Democracy," in Record of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York 29 (1974): 320, 349.
2. Martha Banta, Failure and Success in America: A Literary Debate (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 157 n. 4.
3. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Success," The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: AMS Press, 1968), 436.
4. Derrick Bell, Confronting Authority: Reflections of an Ardent Protestor (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994), ix-x.
5. William J. Brennan Jr., "In Defense of Dissents," Hastings Law Journal 37 (1986): 427, 437.
6. Richard Huber, The American Idea of Success (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), 16.
7. Robert N. Bellah, Richard Madsen, William Sullivan, Ann Swidler, and Steven Tipton, Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (New York: Harper and Row, 1985; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 153.
8. Helmut James Von Moltke, Letters to Freya 1939-1945, ed. and trans. Beate Ruhn von Oppen (New York: Knopf, 1990) 270.
9. Abraham Heschel, The Prophets (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 212.
10. Victor Frankl, Man's Search for Meaning (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984), 127.
11. "Ronald V. Dellums," Current Biography (1972), 101, 102.
12. Interview by author with Congressman Ronald V. Dellums (Washington, D.C., October 1996). That interview is the source of many of the quotes from Dellums in this chapter. See also Ronald V. Dellums and H. Lee Halterman, Lying Down with the Lions (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000).
13. Bill Hewitt, Luchina Fisher, and Fort Lee, "Soldier," People Weekly, 3 December 1990, p. 143.
14. "President's News Conference on the Persian Gulf Crisis," Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 26 (8 November 1990): 1790.
15. William Eaton and Michael Ross, "Bush Says War Is Not Imminent," Los Angeles Times, 15 November 1990, sec. A, p. 1.
16. Stephen L. Carter, "Going to War Over War Powers," Washington Post, 18 November 1990, sec. C, p. 1.
17. Edward T. Hearn, States News Service, 30 October 1990;
18. see also David Evans, "A Declaration Can Be a Potent Weapon in the War of Words," Chicago Tribune, 2 November 1990, sec. C, p. 27.
19. Robert M. Cover, "The Supreme Court, 1982 Term-Foreword: Nomos and Narrative," Harvard Law Review 97 (1983): 4, 52. Cover notes that groups such as the Quakers and the Amish create a "jurisprudence that orders the forms and occasions of confrontation, a jurisprudence of resistance that is necessarily also one of accommodation."
20. Max Farrand, The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, Vol. 1 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1911), 316;
21. Julian P. Boyd, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Vol. 15 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958), 397;
22. Farrand, Records, Vol. 2, 319.
23. Jonathon Elliot, The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution in 1787, Vol. 2 (New York: B. Franklin, 1974, 1888), 528.
24. Abraham D. Sofaer, War, Foreign Affairs and Constitutional Power: The Origins (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1976), 32.
25. Alexander Hamilton, "Pacificus No. 1," in Papers of Alexander Hamilton, ed. Harold Syrett, Vol. 15 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 40.
26. Federal News Service, Press Conference with Representative Ronald Dellums and others, 20 November, 1990, p. 2.
27. Thomas L. Friedman, "How U.S. Won Support to Use Mideast Forces," New York Times, 2 December 1990, sec. A, p. 11.
28. Thomas L. Friedman, "Lighting the Fuse?" New York Times, 30 November 1990, sec. A, p. 11.
29. Anna Quindlen, "Consent of Congress," New York Times, 6 December 1990, sec. A, p. 27.
30. Editorial, "Who Can Declare War," New York Times, 15 December 1990, 26;
31. Susan F. Rasky, "House Democrats Caution Bush on War," New York Times, 5 December 1990, sec. A, p. 22;
32. Ethan Bronner, "Democrats Argue the Case in Court for Congressional Approval of War," Boston Globe, 5 December 1990, p. 10.
33. Nightline, "Persian Gulf Peace/War See-Saw," 14 December 1990, 13. For other news commentary on Greene's rejection of the Justice Department's war powers claims
34. see Ethan Bronner, "Judge Turns Back Bid to Force Bush to Consult Congress before Attack," Boston Globe, 14 December 1990, p. 17;
35. David G. Savage and Michael Ross, "U.S. Judge Refuses to Block Bush from Starting a War," Los Angeles Times, 14 December 1990, sec. A, p. 22.
36. Harry Stoffer, "Judge Finds Bush Can't Go to War Alone," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 14 December 1990, p. 3.
37. "Remarks of President George Bush before the Texas State Republican Convention Dallas," Texas Federal News Service, 20 June 1992, 3.
38. David G. Savage and Michael Ross, "U.S. Judge Refuses to Block Bush from Starting a War," Los Angeles Times, 14 December 1990, sec. A, p. 1.
39. Neil A. Lewis, "Lawmakers Lose a Suit on War Powers," New York Times, 14 December 1990, sec. A, p. 15.
40. Anne-Marie Burley, "Book Review: Constitutionalism, Democracy, and Foreign Affairs by Louis Henkin," American Journal of International Law 86 (1992): 415-7.
41. Abraham J. Heschel, The Prophets (New York: Harper and Row, 1955), 204-5. The prophetic model "is characterized by the principle of solidarity." Johannes Lindblom, Prophecy in Ancient Israel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1962), 344;
42. Michael Waltzer, Interpretation and Social Criticism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 80.
43. Hendrik Hartog, "Aspiration and the Rights That Belong to Us All," in "The Constitution of American Life: ASpecial Issue," Journal of American History (1987): 1013, 1027.
44. Joel Kovel, History and Spirit: An Inquiry into the Philosophy of Liberation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1991), 2-3.
45. Albion Tourgée, A Fool's Errand, ed. John Hope Franklin (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961; Boston: W. H. Thompson & Co., 1880), 6.
46. See, e.g., Sanford Levinson, Constitutional Faith (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988).
47. Stephen Middleton, Ohio and the Antislavery Activities of Attorney Salmon Portland Chase 1830-1849 (New York: Garland, 1990), 96;
48. John Niven, Salmon P. Chase: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 50-1.
49. Albert Bushnell Hart, Salmon Portland Chase (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1899), 23.
50. Frederick J. Blue, Salmon P. Chase: A Life in Politics (Kent, OH: Kent University Press, 1987), x.
51. G. Edward White, "Reconstructing the Constitutional Jurisprudence of Salmon P. Chase," Northern Kentucky Law Review 21 (1993): 41, 43-5.
52. Jacobus TenBroek, Equal under the Law (London: Collier, 1964), 33.
53. Robert M. Cover, Justice Accused: Antislavery and the Judicial Process (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), 160.
54. Blue, xi.
55. Niven, 48.
56. Blue, 31.
57. Hart, 49.
58. Blue, 31.
59. Middleton, 83.
60. Niven, 78.
61. Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 74.
62. Middleton, 97.
63. Niven, 51.
64. Niven, 53;
65. Blue, 32.
66. Speech of Salmon Portland Chase in the Case of the Colored Woman Matilda, March 11, 1837 (Cincinnati: Pugh and Dodd Printers, 1837), 7-8.
67. William M. Wiecek, The Sources of Antislavery Constitutionalism in America, 1760-1848 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977), 193.
68. Foner, 74.
69. Middleton, 102.
70. J. W. Shuckers, The Life and Public Services of Salmon Portland Chase (New York: Da Capo Press, 1970), 42-3.
71. Hart, 74;
72. Shuckers, 43-4;
73. Chase's argument is printed in James G. Birney v. The State of Ohio, 8 Ohio Reports (1837): 230, 231.
74. Niven, 84.
75. The State v. Hoppess, 2 W.L.J. 279, 285 (1845).
76. "Address and Reply on the Presentation of a Testimonial to S. P. Chase by the Colored People of Cincinnati," reprinted in Fugitive Slaves and American Courts, Vol. 1, ed. Paul Finkelman (New York: Garland, 1988), 235, 240, 248.
77. Shuckers, 78.
78. Hart, 424-5.
79. White, 60.
80. Shuckers, 65.
81. Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 41 U.S. 539 (1842).
82. Cover, 173.
83. S. P. Chase, An Argument for the Defendant Submitted to the Supreme Court of the United States at the December Term 1846 in the Case of Warton Jones v. John Van Zandt (Cincinnati R. P. Donogh & Co. 1847), 5.
84. Hart, 77.
85. Chase, Argument, 82.
86. Chase, Argument, 76.
87. Blue, 247.
88. Middleton, 121.
89. Blue, 38.
90. Foner, 136.
91. Daniel R. Ernst, "Legal Positivism, Abolitionist Litigation, and the New Jersey Slave Case of 1845," Law and History Review 4 (1986): 337, 343.
92. Cover, 43-55.
93. Gerald Sorin, The New York Abolitionists: A Case Study of Political Radicalism (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1971), 48.
94. Ernst, 346.
95. Luther Rawson Marsh, Writings and Speeches of Alvan Stewart on Slavery (New York: A. B. Burdick, 1860), 36.
96. Sorin, 49.
97. Marsh, 16.
98. TenBroek, 67-72.
99. Sorin, 51.
100. Cover, 56.
101. Marsh, 26;
102. Ernst, 336.
103. Stewart's argument is reproduced in Paul Finkelman, Introduction to Abolitionists in Northern Courts: The Pamphlet Literature, ser. 3 (New York: Garland, 1988), 442-92.
104. Marsh, 266.
105. Finkelman, 463, 478, 482.
106. Sorin, 50, 51 n. 98.
107. Wiecek, Sources of Antislavery, 274.
108. TenBroek, 89;
109. see also Cover, 155.
110. TenBroek, 29, 116-29.
111. Wiecek, Sources of Antislavery, 274.
112. Hartog, 1017.
113. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Matilda Joslyne Gage, The History of Woman Suffrage, Vol. 2 (New York: Fowler and Wells, 1882; New York: Arno and The New York Times, 1969), 627.
114. Alma Lutz, Susan B. Anthony: Rebel, Crusader, Humanitarian, Vol. 2 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1959), 200;
115. see also Ida Harper, The Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony, Vol. 1 (Indianapolis: Hollenbeck Press, 1898), 424-5.
116. Stanton, 934.
117. Miriam Gurko, The Ladies of Seneca Falls: The Birth of the Woman's Rights Movement (New York: Macmillan, 1974; New York: Schocken Books, 1976), 155.
118. Ellen Dubois, "Women's Rights and Abolition: The Nature of the Connection," in Antislavery Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Abolitionists, ed. Lewis Perry and Michael Fellman (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 247.
119. Kathleen Barry, Susan B. Anthony: A Biography of a Singular Feminist (New York: New York University Press, 1988), 83.
120. Rheta Childe Dorr, Susan B. Anthony: The Woman Who Changed the Mind of a Nation (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1928), 268.
121. Ellen Dubois, "Outgrowing the Compact of the Fathers: Equal Rights, Woman Suffrage and the United States Constitution, 1820-1878," in A Less Than Perfect Union, ed. Jules Lobel (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1988), 121.
122. "The British Courts on Women Suffrage," The Revolution, 17 December 1868.
123. Stanton, 411.
124. Joan Hoff, Law, Gender, & Injustice: A Legal History of U.S. Women (New York: New York University Press, 1991), 146-50.
125. Stanton, 408.
126. David Herbert Donald, Charles Sumner, Vol. 2 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1996), 151.
127. Stanton, 635.
128. William E. Nelson, The Fourteenth Amendment: From Political Principle to Judicial Doctrine (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 68.
129. Stanton, 408 (letter from Francis Minor to The Revolution on October 14, 1869).
130. Harper, 411.
131. Stanton, 511.
132. "Woman Suffrage before the Courts," The Revolution, 11 June 1871.
133. Stanton, 487.
134. Victoria Woodhull, "Address to the Judiciary Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives" (11 January 1871), in Stanton, 444-48.
135. House Committee on the Judiciary, Report No. 5, 41st Cong., 3rd sess. (1871), in Stanton, 464-89.
136. Barry, 252.
137. Godfrey D. Lehman, "Susan B. Anthony Cast Her Ballot for Ulysses S. Grant," American Heritage, December 1985, p. 27.
138. Stanton, 630.
139. Lutz, 205.
140. Stanton, 936.
141. Stanton, 647.
142. Stanton, 688.
143. Katherine Anthony, Susan B. Anthony: Her Personal History and Her Era (New York: Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1954), 299.
144. Lehman, 31.
145. Harper, 455-6.
146. Stanton, 695.
147. Lehman, 30.
148. Anthony, 301.
149. Sandra Day O'Connor, "The History of the Women's Suffrage Movement," Vanderbilt Law Review 49 (1996): 657, 662.
150. Jane Friedman, America's First Woman Lawyer (Buffalo: Prometheus Books, 1993), 47.
151. Jane Friedman, Myra Bradwell. "On Defying the Creator and Becoming a Lawyer," Valparaiso University Law Review 28 (1994): 1287, 1300.
152. "The Supreme Court Righting Itself," 16 The Nation 280, 24 April 1873, in Friedman, Defying the Creator, 1287.
153. Friedman, Defying the Creator, 1302.
154. Mary K. Dains, ed., Show Me Missouri Women: Selected Biographies (Kirksville, MO: Thomas Jefferson University Press, 1989), 234.
155. Anna Kelly Koetting, Four St. Louis Women: Precursors of Reform (1972), 18.
156. Lutz, 200.
157. Hoff, 171.
158. New York Times, 10 February 1879, p. 8.
159. Stanton, 734.
160. Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162, 164 (1874).
161. Stanton, 720.
162. Karen O'Connor, Women's Organizational Use of the Courts (Lexington, MA, D. C. Heathe, 1980), 43.
163. Lynn Sherr, Failure Is Impossible: Susan B. Anthony in Her Own Words (New York: Random House, 1995), 329.
164. Norma Basch, "Reconstructing Female Citizenship: Minor v. Happersett," in The Constitution, Law and American Life: Critical Aspects of the Nineteenth Century Experience, ed. Donald G. Nieman (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 58.
165. Charles Fairman, Reconstruction and Reunion, 1864-1868 Part Two (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 224.
166. Dorr, 227.
167. Ellen Dubois, "Taking the Law into Our Own Hands: Bradwell, Minor and Suffrage Militance in the 1870's," in One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage Movement, ed. Marjorie Spruill Wheeler (Troutdale, OR: New Sage Press, 1995), 97.
168. Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change: Rochester, New York, 1822-1872 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984).
169. Stanton, Vol. 3, 84.
170. Carrie Chapman Catt and Nettie Rogers Shuler, Woman Suffrage and Politics; The Inner Story of the Suffrage Movement (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1923), 106.
171. Sherr, 290.
172. Dubois, "Outgrowing the Compact of the Fathers," 131.
173. Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965);
174. Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973).
175. Basch, 56.
176. Stanton, Vol. 2, 508.
177. Hoff, 149.
178. Hoff, 179-82.
179. Dubois, Taking the Law, 83.
180. Dubois, "Outgrowing the Compact of the Fathers," 131;
181. see also Adam Winkler, A Revolution Too Soon: Woman Suffragists and the "Living Constitution" N.Y.U. L. Rev. 76 (2001): 1456.
182. Stanton, 755.
183. Dorr, 4.
184. Sherr, 324.
185. Jack Greenberg, "Litigation for Social Change: Methods, Limits, and Role in Democracy," Record of the Bar Association of the City of New York, Vol. 29 (1974): 320, 326.
186. Rodolphe L. Desdunes, Our People and Our History: Fifty Creole Portraits (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973), 141. This book was originally published in 1911 as Nos Hommes et Notre Histerie.
187. Charles A. Lofgren, The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 97;
188. quoting James Bryce, "Thoughts on the Negro Problem," North American Review 153 (1891): 654.
189. Bertonneau v. Board of Directors of City Schools 3 Fed. Cas 294 (Circuit Ct, D. La 1978).
190. Fischer, 142-3.
191. Hall v. DeCuir, 95 U.S. 485 (1878).
192. Hall v. DeCuir, 503. See also Lofgren, 131-2, which discusses the Hall case.
193. Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 107-8;
194. J. Morgan Kousser, "The Supremacy of Equal Rights: The Struggle against Racial Discrimination in Antebellum Massachusetts and the Foundations of the Fourteenth Amendments," Northwestern University Law Review 82 (1988): 941, 954.
195. Kousser, "The Supremacy of Equal Rights," 955.
196. Roberts v. Boston, 59 Mass. 198 (1849);
197. Leonard W. Levy and Douglas L. Jones, eds., Jim Crow in Boston: The Origin of the Separate but Equal Doctrine (New York: Da Capo Press, 1974), xi.
198. Donald G. Neiman, "The Language of Liberation: African Americans and Equalitarian Constitutionalism, 1830-1950," in The Constitution, Law and American Life: Critical Aspects of the Nineteenth-Century Experience, ed. Donald G. Nieman (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 67, 71.
199. See J. Morgan Kousser, Dead End: The Development of Nineteenth Century Litigation on Racial Discrimination in Schools (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), 5.
200. Liva Baker, The Second Battle of New Orleans: The Hundred-Year Struggle to Integrate the Schools (New York: Harper Collins, 1996), 36.
201. Desdunes, 147.
202. Charles B. Roussève, The Negro in Louisiana: Aspects of His History and His Literature (New Orleans: Xavier University Press, 1937), 158, quoting Desdunes.
203. Desdunes, 147.
204. Otto M. Olsen, Carpetbagger's Crusade: The Life of Albion Wingar Tourgée (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press: 1965), 298.
205. John Hope Franklin, Introduction to Albion W. Tourgée, A Fool's Errand, ed. John H. Franklin (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961), xxi.
206. Albion Tourgée, AFool's Errand, ed. John H. Franklin (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961), 134-5.
207. Richard O. Boyer, The Legend of John Brown: A Biography and a History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1973), 4
208. quoted in Lacey Baldwin Smith, Fools, Martyrs, Traitors: The Story of Martyrdom in the Western World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 229.
209. Smith, 258.
210. Olsen, The Thin Disguise, 11.
211. George J. Becker, "Albion W. Tourgée: Pioneer in Social Criticism," American Literature, Vol. 19, no. 1 (March 1947): 59;
212. Edward Wilson, Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press: 1962), 536.
213. Olsen, Carpetbagger's Crusade, 294.
214. Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969), 153.
215. Olsen, Carpetbagger's Crusade, 281.
216. C. Vann Woodward, "The Case of the Louisiana Traveler," in Quarrels That Have Shaped the Constitution, ed. John A. Garraty (New York: Harper and Row, 1987), 157, 164.
217. Olsen, Carpetbagger's Crusade, 327.
218. Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modern State, 1888-1910, Vol. 8, History of the Supreme Court of the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1993), 360, quoting Plaintiff's Brief at 31.
219. Laura N. Gasaway and Judith W. Wegner, "Women at UNC and in the Practice of Law," North Carolina Law Review 73 (1995): 705, 705-6.
220. Landmark Briefs, 61.
221. Olsen, The Thin Disguise, 85.
222. Fiss, 354, 360.
223. Olsen, The Thin Disguise, 64.
224. Olsen, Carpetbagger's Crusade, 328.
225. Plessy v. Ferguson, 542.
226. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), 80.
227. Plessy v. Ferguson, 557.
228. Tinsley E. Yarbrough, Judicial Enigma: The First Justice Harlan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 139-43.
229. Plessy v. Ferguson, 559.
230. Lofgren, 196;
231. Olsen, The Thin Disguise, 25;
232. Riegel, 17.
233. C. Vann Woodward, "Plessy v. Ferguson: The Birth of Jim Crow," American Heritage, Vol. 15, no. 3 (April 1964): 52, 103.
234. Lofgren, 196-7.
235. Lofgren, 208.
236. Charles E. Hughes, The Supreme Court of the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 68.
237. William J. Brennan Jr., "In Defense of Dissents," Hastings Law Journal 37 (1986): 427, 431.
238. Stanley H. Fuld, "The Voices of Dissent," Columbia Law Review 62 (1962): 923, 928
239. quoting William O. Douglas, "The Dissent, A Safeguard of Democracy," American Judicature Society Journal 32 (1948): 104, 107.
240. Benjamin Cardozo, Law and Literature and Other Essays and Addresses (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1931), 36.
241. Martin Kelman, "The Forked Path of Dissent," Supreme Court Review (1985): 227, 255.
242. Karl M. ZoBell, "Division of Opinion in the Supreme Court: AHistory of Judicial Disintegration," Cornell Law Quarterly 44 (1959): 186, 211 n. 129.
243. See, for example, T. Alexander Aleinikoff, "Re-Reading Justice Harlan's Dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson: Freedom, Antiracism and Citizenship," University of Illinois Law Review (1992): 961.
244. Woodward, "The Case of the Louisiana Traveler," 173-4.
245. Robert M. Cover, "The Supreme Court 1982 Term: Foreword: Nomos and Narrative," Harvard Law Review 97 (1983): 4, 28.
246. Leon Friedman, ed., Argument: The Oral Argument before the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 1952-55 (New York: Chelsea House, 1969), 239-40
247. quoted in A. Leon Higginbotham Jr., Shades of Freedom: Racial Polities and Presumptions of the American Legal Process (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 83.
248. Margold Report, reprinted in Jack Greenberg, "Judicial Process and Social Change," Cases and Materials on Judicial Process: Constitutional Litigation (St. Paul: West, 1977), 51.
249. Lofgren, 208.
250. Kluger, 133-4, 186.
251. Arthur Kinoy, "The Constitutional Right of Negro Freedom," Rutgers Law Review 21 (1967): 387, 426-7.
252. Higginbotham, 111-2.
253. Edward H. Levi, An Introduction to Legal Reasoning (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949), 1-19. I am indebted to my colleague Vivian Curran for pointing out the dialectical path of common law decisions.
254. Higginbotham, 189.
255. James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), xxix.
256. Olsen, The Thin Disguise, 27-8.
257. Judge Damon Keith, "Speech: One Hundred Years after Plessy v. Ferguson," University of Cincinnati Law Review 65 (1997): 853, 856.
258. Maurice Friedman, Abraham Joshua Heschel, and Elie Wiesel, You Are My Witnesses (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1987), 88.
259. Carl T. Roman, Dream Makers, Dream Breakers: The World of Justice Thurgood Marshall (Boston: Little Brown, 1993), 453-4.
260. This statistic and those that follow are culled from a study by Glady Tignor Peterson of cases involving separate schools from 1865 to 1934. Gladys Tignor Peterson, "The Present Status of the Negro Separate School as Defined by Court Decisions," Journal of Negro Education Vol. 4, no. 3 (July 1935): 351-74.
261. In the late 1890s and early 1900s, blacks organized boycotts in more than twenty-five southern cities against Jim Crow streetcars. While most of those boycotts were unsuccessful, boycotts did defeat Jim Crow in a number of southern cities, but success was only temporary; segregation was reimposed within a few months or at most years. Catherine A. Barnes, Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 11-2.
262. Charles H. Thompson, "Court Action the Only Reasonable Alternative to Remedy Immediate Abuses of the Negro Separate School," Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 4, no. 3 (July 1935): 419, 422.
263. This "vision has justified continued struggles by groups in the face of (presumably temporary) judicial and political defeats." Hendrick Hartog, "The Constitution of Aspiration and 'The Rights That Belong to Us All,'" Journal of American History, Vol. 74, no. 3 (December 1987): 1013, 1016.
264. Austin Sarat, "Between (the Presence of) Violence and (the Possibility of) Justice: Lawyering against Capital Punishment," in Cause Lawyering: Political Commitments and Professional Responsibilities, ed. Austin Sarat and Stuart Scheingold (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 317, 324.
265. Higginbotham, 206.
266. Baker, 51.
267. Staughton Lynd, "The Genesis of the Idea of a Community Right to Industrial Property in Youngstown and Pittsburgh 1971-1987," Journal of American History, Vol. 74, no. 3 (1987): 926;
268. William K. Stevens, "New Pennsylvania Governor Seeks an Economic Partnership," New York Times, 21 January 1987, sec. A, p. 16 (steel industry jobs declined from 90,000 to 22,000 in Pittsburgh).
269. Associated Press, "Youngstown Learns to Live without Steel, But It's Grim," Los Angeles Times, 23 August 1987, part 1, p. 2.
270. Susanna McBee, "Desperate Jobless City Seeks to Buy Failing Steel Plant," Washington Post, 9 May 1978, sec. A, p. 2.
271. Staughton Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns: Youngstown's Steel Mill Closings (San Pedro: Singlejack Books, 1982), 145, quoting the City Council of Youngstown Resolution 79-153.
272. Haynes Johnson, "The Heartbreak of Ohio's Steel Valley," Washington Post, 26 October 1980, sec. G, p. 1.
273. Staughton Lynd, Living Inside Our Hope: A Steadfast Radical's Thoughts on Rebuilding the Movement (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), 7.
274. Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns, 26-7.
275. William Serrin, "Anti-War Leader of the 60's Now Helps Workers as a Lawyer," New York Times, 29 November 1982, sec. A, p. 16.
276. Lynd, Living Inside Our Hope, 48.
277. Jane Slaughter, "Staughton Lynd," The Progressive, February 1994, 33.
278. Lynd, Living Inside Our Hope, 7-8.
279. Lynd, Living Inside Our Hope, 25.
280. Lynd, Living Inside Our Hope, 25.
281. Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns, 142.
282. Ernest Brown Jr., "Steel Closures Suit Is Filed," Youngstown Vindicator, 21 December 1979, p. 1.
283. Lynd, 154.
284. John Judis, "The Strange Case of Ramsey Clark: How Far Left Can You Go? Farther," New Republic, Vol. 204, no. 16, 22 April 1991, p. 23.
285. David Margolick, "The Long and Lonely Journey of Ramsey Clark," New York Times, 14 June 1991, sec. B, p. 9.
286. Josh Getlin, "For a Politician, Former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark Took a Road Less Traveled," Los Angeles Times, 18 February 1990, sec. E, p. 1.
287. Susan Aschoff, "Thinking Globally, He Acts That Way Too," St. Petersburg Times, 5 April 1999, p. 1D.
288. Saltany v. Reagan, 702 F. Supp. 319, 322 (D.D.C. 1988).
289. Paul Hurley, "Clark Tells the Story Like It Is," Youngstown Vindicator, 29 February 1980, p. 1.
290. Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns, 163.
291. Paul Hurley, "Action Held up 1 Week," The Youngstown Vindicator, 29 February 1980, p. 1.
292. Greg Garland, "U.S. Judge's Edict Could Be Appealed," Warren Tribune Chronicle, 29 February 1980.
293. "U.S. Steel Decided Last May Not to Invest," Warren Tribune Chronicle, 18 March 1980, p. 1.
294. See Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns, 175.
295. Paul Hurley, "Steel Workers Retain Hope on Mill Purchase," Youngstown Vindicator, 23 March 1980, sec. A, p. 1.
296. Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns, 177.
297. Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns, 178.
298. Arthur Kinoy, Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983), 57-8.
299. Kinoy's view is akin to the spiritual perspective that the "impossible must be imagined if it is to be realized." Joel Kovel, History and Spirit: An Inquiry into the Philosophy of Liberation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1991), 13.
300. Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns, 186, quoting "Judge Calls Steel Suit Lesson For Nation," Youngstown Vindicator, 14 November 1980.
301. Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns, 187.
302. Joseph B. White, "Workers' Revenge: Factory Towns Start to Fight Back Angrily When Firms Pull Out," Wall Street Journal, 3 March 1988, sec. A, p. 1.
303. Jacob M. Schlesinger, "General Motors Sued by Town for $318.3 Million over Breakup of Sixty-Four-Year Marriage," Wall Street Journal, 21 August 1987, sec. A, p. 1.
304. Merrill Goozner, "Cities Win Round in Plant Case," Chicago Tribune, 29 June 1988, sec. C, p. 1;
305. Neal R. Peirce, "Plant Closings Force States to Seek Retribution," National Journal, Vol. 20, no. 14, 7 May 1988, p. 1207.
306. See Denis Collins, "Plant Closings: Establishing Legal Obligations," Labor Law Journal, Vol. 40, no. 2 (February 1989): 67, 72-3;
307. Fran Ansley, "Standing Rusty and Rolling Empty: Law, Poverty, and America's Eroding Industrial Base," Georgetown Law Journal 81 (1993): 1757, 1819-30.
308. Lynd, The Fight against Shutdowns, 177.
309. Victor Frankl, Man's Search for Meaning (New York: Pocket Books, 1984).
310. Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 127 (1958).
311. Zemel v. Rusk, 381 U.S. 1 (1965).
312. United States v. Laub, 385 U.S. 475 (1967).
313. "Excerpts From Haig's Briefing about El Salvador," New York Times, 21 February 1981, sec. 1, p. 6.
314. Leslie H. Gelb, "Haig Is Said to Press for Military Options for Salvador Action," New York Times, 5 November 1981, sec. A, p. 1.
315. Michael Getler, "U.S. Pumps in Arms, Widens Training to Rescue El Salvador," Washington Post, 5 March 1982, sec. A, p. 1.
316. Barbara Crossette, "U.S., Linking Cuba to Violence, Blocks Tourist and Business Trips," New York Times, 20 April 1982, sec. A, p. 1.
317. Banco Nacional de Cuba v. Sabbatino, 376 U.S. 398 (1964).
318. Haig v. Agee, 453 U.S. 280, 306 (1981).
319. Victor Rabinowitz, Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 324.
320. Jonathan Mirsky, "Obituary, Leonard Boudin," The Independent, 4 December 1989.
321. Association of the Bar of the City of New York, Freedom to Travel (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1958), 72.
322. William B. Gould, "The Right to Travel and National Security," Washington University Law Quarterly 1961: 334, 364 n. 135;
323. Note, "Constitutional Protection of Foreign Travel," Columbia Law Review 81 (1981), 902, 930-1;
324. Peter M. Levitt, "Legality of the Ban of Travel to Iran," Columbia Human Rights Law Review 12 (1980): 91, 99-100.
325. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), 552.
326. Anthony Lewis, "Abroad at Home," New York Times, 2 July 1984, sec. A, p. 15.
327. "The Right to Travel to Cuba," The Washington Post, 1 July 1984, sec. C, p. 6.
328. Sidney Fine, Frank Murphy: The Washington Years (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984), 459.
329. "Cuban Assets Control Regulations: Travel-Related Transactions: 31 C.F.R. § 515.560 (1982)," Federal Register 47 (23 July 1982): 32060, sec. (h)(3).
330. Medea Benjamin, "Cuba Travel Will Continue Despite U.S., Helms' Sanctions," San Francisco Chronicle, 15 March 1995, sec. A, p. 23. In 1994, more than 600 people traveled to Cuba openly and illegally;
331. Terri Langford, "Students Aren't Detained on Return Trip from Cuba," Austin American-Statesmen, 1 July 1995, sec. A, p. 20.
332. Freedom to Travel Compaign v. Newcomb, 82 F.3d 1431 (9th Cir. 1996).
333. Mark Wegner and Shawn Zeller, "A Last-Minute Tiff over Cuba Trade," National Journal, 30 September 2000.
334. See "Cuba Ban: Restrictions on Travel Ought to Go," Dallas Morning News, 2 September 2002, sec. A, p. 26;
335. Alfredo Corchado, "House Votes to Allow Americans to Travel to Cuba," Dallas Morning News, 24 July 2002.
336. Joan Kruckewitt, The Death of Ben Linder: The Story of a North American in Sandinista Nicaragua (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999), 12.
337. See Jim Morrell, "Back Door Aid Abroad," New York Times, 1 April 1981, sec. A, p. 31.
338. Edward Walsh, "Reagan Gets First Public Opinion Backlash-On Salvador Policy," Washington Post, 27 March 1981, sec. A, p. 9.
339. See Raymond Bonner, Weakness and Deceit: U.S. Policy and El Salvador (New York: Times Books, 1984), 274-75.
340. Judith Miller, "Once Again Power Pendulum Swings Toward the Executive Branch," New York Times, 22 March 1981, sec. 4, p. 5.
341. For a description of the wave of terror unleashed by the Salvadoran government, see Robert Armstrong and Janet Shenk, El Salvador: The Face of Revolution (Boston: South End Press, 1982), 137-81.
342. John H. Ely, "Suppose Congress Wanted a War Powers Act That Worked," Columbia Law Review 88 (1988): 1379, 1416-17, relying on Crockett in reaching the conclusion that a suit for immediate withdrawal of troops requires an inquiry that is inappropriate for judicial determination.
343. Crockett v. Reagan, 558 F. Supp. 893 (D.D.C. 1982).
344. Crockett v. Reagan, 902.
345. Gerald Boyd, "Reagan Terms Nicaraguan Rebels 'Moral Equal of Founding Fathers,'" New York Times, 2 March 1985, sec. 1, p. 1.
346. Joel Brinkly, "Playing by the Wrong Book on Nicaragua," New York Times, 21 October 1984, sec. 4, p. 5.
347. Sara Miles, Talking Nicaragua (1983), 29
348. Sara Miles, Talking Nicaragua: A Dialogue with Susan Saradon and Myrna Cunningham (1983).
349. David Cole, "Challenging Covert War: The Politics of the Political Question Doctrine," Harvard International Law Journal 26 (1985): 155, 156;
350. see also Jules Lobel, "The Limits of Constitutional Power: Conflicts Between Foreign Policy and International Law," Virginia Law Review 71 (1985): 1071, discussing the Filartiga decision.
351. Deborah R. Gerstel and Adam G. Segall, "Conference Report: Human Rights in American Courts," American University Journal of International Law and Policy 1 (1986): 137, 140.
352. Lou Cannon, "Two Objectives, Polls Apart," The Washington Post, 10 June 1985, sec. A, p. 2.
353. Peter Rosset and John Vandermeer, eds., The Nicaragua Reader: Documents of a Revolution under Fire (New York: Grove Press, 1983), 228-36.
354. Sanchez-Espinoza v. Reagan, 568 F. Supp. 596, 601 (D.D.C. 1983).
355. Mark Gibney, "Courts as 'Teachers in a Vital National Seminar' on Human Rights," in World Justice? U.S. Courts and International Human Rights, ed. Mark Gibney (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), 81-105.
356. Gerstel and Segall, 144.
357. Dellums v. Smith, 573 F. Supp. 1489, 1492 (N.D. Ca. 1983), reproducing part of plaintiffs' letter.
358. Dellums v. Smith, 1492.
359. Jules Lobel, "The Rise and Decline of the Neutrality Act: Sovereignty and Congressional War Powers in United States Foreign Policy," Harvard International Law Journal 24 (1983): 1.
360. Dellums v. Smith, 1493.
361. Stuart Taylor, "War Powers: Back in Court," New York Times, 13 January 1984, sec. A, p. 9. The National Law Journal did a similar story later on the case.
362. John Riley, "Neutrality Act Violated in Nicaragua? Controversy Looms on Enforcement," National Law Journal 3 November 1986, p. 3.
363. See Milt Freudenheim et al., "Trial of American in Managua Stirs Allegations on Aid," New York Times, 26 October 1986, sec. 4, p. 2.
364. John N. Moore, "The Secret War in Central America and the Future of World Order," American Journal of International Law 80 (1986): 43, 92 n. 197.
365. "Lawsuit on Contras Dismissed in California," New York Times, 22 August 1986, sec. A, p. 5;
366. Taylor, "War Powers," sec. A, p. 9;
367. "Nicaragua Aid Probe Resisted," Washington Post, 12 January 1984, sec. A, p. 17.
368. Barnes v. Carmen, 582 F. Supp. 163 (D.D.C. 1984).
369. Barnes v. Kline, 759 F.2d 21 (D.C. Cir. 1985).
370. Burke v. Barnes, 479 U.S. 361 (1987).
371. Peter Rosset and John Vandermeer, Nicaragua: Unfinished Revolution: The New Nicaragua Reader (New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1986), 266, quoting America's Watch Report of April 1984.
372. International Emergency Economic Powers Act, U.S. Code, Vol. 50, sec. 1701 et seq. (1977).
373. Jonathan Bingham, "Why Nicaragua was Labeled a Threat," New York Times, 12 May 1985, sec. 4, p. 22.
374. Goldwater v. Carter, 444 U.S. 996 (1979).
375. Beacon Products Corp. v. Reagan, 633 F. Supp. 1191 (D. Mass. 1986).
376. Andrew Nachison, "U.S. Parents Still Question Why Son Died in Nicaragua," Los Angeles Times, 3 May 1992, sec. B, p. 6.
377. Kruckewitt, The Death of Ben Linder, 16.
378. Kruckewitt, 59.
379. "The Killing of Benjamin Linder," Center for Constitutional Rights Report (April 1988): 4.
380. Quoted in testimony of David Linder, House Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere Affairs, United States Volunteers in Nicaragua and the Death of Benjamin Linder: Hearings, 101 Cong., 1st sess., 13 May 1987, 11.
381. Kruckewitt, The Death of Ben Linder, 93.
382. John Lantigua, "Fatal Calling," Washington Post, 31 May 1987, sec. W, p.14.
383. Michelle Cole, "Ben Linder's Legacy: Ideals Turn into Reality in Nicaragua," The Oregonian, 22 February 2000, sec. C, p. 4.
384. Kruckewitt, The Death of Ben Linder, 225.
385. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States), 1984 I.C.J. 392 (26 November 1984).
386. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States), 1986 I.C.J. 14 (27 June 1986).
387. United States v. Richardson, 418 U.S. 166 (1974);
388. Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church and State, 454 U.S. 464 (1982).
389. Kruckewitt, The Death of Ben Linder, 222.
390. Kruckewitt, The Death of Ben Linder, 223.
391. American Society of International Law, "The Authority of the United States Executive to Interpret, Articulate or Violate the Norms of International Law," in Proceedings of the 80th Annual Meeting (1986), 297, 306.
392. Frank Newman and David Weissbrodt, eds., International Human Rights: Law Policy and Process (Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing, 1990), 627 (questions whether appellants would have had a stronger case if they had alleged that Congress had not intended to break Article 94 of the UN Charter). See, e.g., United States v. Palestine Liberation Organization, 695 F. Supp. 1456 (S.D.N.Y. 1988). The argument would have been that Congress meant to appropriate the money simply for humanitarian and not for military aid.
393. Kruckewitt, The Death of Ben Linder, 243.
394. Lantigua, "Fatal Calling," sec. W, p. 14.
395. House Committee, The Death of Benjamin Linder, 7.
396. Lantigua, "Fatal Calling," sec. W, p. 14.
397. Elaine Sciolino, "U.S. Groups Lay Blame for Killing of Volunteer on Administration," New York Times, 30 April 1987, sec. A, p. 12.
398. Joanne Omarg, "Republican Lawmakers, Contra Victim's Parents Trade Charges," The Washington Post, 14 May 1987, sec. A, p. 36.
399. Lais Eric Nelso, "An American is Neutralized," New York Daily News, 1 May 1987.
400. Mayor Andrew Young Memorial Service, Decatur, Georgia, 3 May 1987, http://www.rtfcam.org/martyrs/fullness_of_life/ben_linder.htm.
401. House Committee, The Death of Benjamin Linder, 9.
402. Mike Mills, "American Slain in Nicaragua Aware of Risks, U.S. Says," Los Angeles Times, 30 April 1987, part 1, p. 1.
403. Gerald M. Boyd, "Bush Debates with Brother of American Slain By Contras," New York Times, 1 August 1987, sec. 1, p. 1.
404. House Committee, The Death of Ben Linder, 59.
405. Linder v. Portocarrero, 747 F. Supp. 1452, 1460 (S.D. Fla. 1990).
406. Gioconda Belli, The Country Under My Skin (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 369.
407. George Will, "Uphill for a California Republican," Washington Post, 27 August 2000, sec. B, p. 7.
408. Judith Lewis, "My Life as an Underdog," Los Angeles Weekly, 27 October 2002, p. 22.
409. Vincent Schodolski, "New California Congressman Doesn't Fit Republican Mold," Chicago Tribune, 8 February 1996, p. 16.
410. Lindsay Sobel, "Rep. Tom Campbell: California Moderate Republican Goes against the Grain without the Zeal of a Rebel," The Hill, 1 April 1998, p. 41.
411. Faye Fiore, "Crisis in Yugoslavia: Maverick Lawmaker Trying to Force Colleagues to Take a Stand on Kosovo," Los Angeles Times, 15 April 1999, sec. A, p. 18.
412. Fiore, 18.
413. Melvin G. Holli, The American Mayor: The Best and Worst Big-City Leaders (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), 16.
414. U.S. Department of Defense, News Briefing, 15 May 1999, 14, available at http://www.defenselink.mil/news/May 1999/t05151999_t0515asa.html.
415. John Bassett Moore, "The Control of the Foreign Relations of the United States," in The Collected Papers of John Bassett Moore, Vol. 5 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944), 196.
416. The Prize Cases, 67 U.S. 635, 669 (1863).
417. Dellums v. Bush, 752 F. Supp. 1141 (D.D.C. 1990).
418. See Campbell v. Clinton, 52 F. Supp. 2d 34, 43-4 (D.D.C. 1999)
419. Neil Lewis, "The 1992 Campaign, Selection of Conservative Judge Insures a President's Legacy," New York Times, 1 July 1992, sec. A, p. 13.
420. See Campbell v. Clinton, 203 F.3d 19 (D.C. Cir. 2000).
421. Sarah Boxer, "The Man Who Created the Kid in Us All," New York Times, 20 February 2000, sec. IV, p. 2.
422. Martha Banta, Failure and Success in America: A Literary Debate (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 160.
423. Helen Hershkoff and Aubrey McCutcheon, Public Interest Litigation: An International Perspective in Many Roads to Justice, the Law-Related Work of Ford Foundation Grantees Around the World, ed. Mary McClymont & Stephen Golub (New York: Ford Foundation, 2000), 287.
424. Thomas Friedman, "Half a Loaf," New York Times, 5 July 1995, sec. A, p. 21.
425. James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: ACivil Rights Milestone and Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), xxix.
426. Michael Seidman, "Brown and Miranda," California Law Review 80 (1992): 673, 744;
427. Welsh S. White, Miranda's Warning Protections: Police Interrogation Practices after Dickerson (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 2001);
428. Welsh S. White, "Miranda's Failure to Restrain Pernicious Interrogation Prac- tices," Michigan Law Review (2001) 99: 1211 (Miranda provides only minimal safeguards) at 1217.
429. Seidman, 753.
430. Barry M. Goldwater, With No Apologies: The Personal and Political Memoirs of United States Senator Barry M. Goldwater (New York: Morrow, 1979), 163.
431. Robert Caro, Master of the Senate (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 793.
432. The New Yorker writer Louis Menand viewed the Goldwater campaign in this fashion. Louis Menand, "He Knew He Was Right: The Tragedy of Barry Goldwater," The New Yorker, 26 March 2002, p. 92.
433. Heschel, 212.
434. Interview with Peter Weir, from Cinema Papers, August 1990 at http//www.peterweircave.com/articles/articlelc.html.
435. Ivan I. Morris, Nobility of Failure, Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1975).
436. James E. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 115.
437. Editorial, "NATO Strike Is against a Criminal," Sunday Star-Times (Auckland), 21 March 1999, p. 10.