The first Islamist republic: Development and disintegration of Islamism in the Sudan

The First Islamist Republic: Development and Disintegration of Islamism in the Sudan

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-183

  Gallab, Abdullahi A ^a  

^a ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84900131828     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (388)

1. J. Millard Burr and Robert O. Collins, Revolutionary Sudan: Hasan al-Turabi and the Islamist State, 1989-2000 (Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2003), 3.
2. J. Millard Burr and Robert O. Collins, Al-Sudan wa Siqot al-Agniaa: Sanwat al-Khiyba wa al-Amal [Sudan and the Drop of Masks: Years of Despair and Hope] (Cairo: Sweeter Press, 2006), 87.
3. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
4. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
5. Willis, interview by author, audio recording, Khartoum, Sudan, 30 December 2005.
6. William Rose and Eliza Van Dusten, "Sudan's Islamic Revolutions as a Cause of Foreign Intervention in its Wars: Insights from Balance of Threat Theory," Civil Wars Journal, Vol. 5, No. 3 (2002): 1-64.
7. Stephen M. Walt, "Building Up New Bogeymen," Foreign Policy, No. 106 (1997): 177-89.
8. Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996), 246.
9. William Rose and Eliza Van Dusten, "Sudan's Islamic Revolutions as a Cause of Foreign Intervention in its Wars," 55.
10. Quoted in Fred Hillday, "Is Islam in Danger: Authority, Rushdie and the Struggle for the Migrant Soul," in Jochen Hippler and Andrea Lueg (eds), The Next Threat: Western Perceptions of Islam (London: Pluto Press with Transnational Institute, 1995), 71-81.
11. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
12. Joel Beinin and Joe Stork (eds), Political Islam: Essays from Middle East Report (Berkeley: University of California Press, c.1997), 4.
13. Bobby S. Sayyid, A Fundamental Fear: Eurocentrism and the Emergence of Islamism (London and New York: Zed Books, 1997), 7-26.
14. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam, for an elaboration of this idea.
15. Bassam Tibi, Islam as a Pan-National Movement and Nation-States: An Islamic Doctrine of Human Association (London, UK: The Sudan Foundation, 1992).
16. Larabi Sadiki, The Search for Arab Democracy: Discourses and Counter-Discourses (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 74.
17. Seyyed Hossian Nasr, "The Interior Life in Islam", Al-Serat: A Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. III, Nos. 2 and 3.
18. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1994), 23-6.
19. Bassam Tibi, "The Worldview of Sunni Arab Fundamentalists: Attitudes toward Modern Science and Technology," in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (eds), Fundamentalisms and Society: Reclaiming the Sciences, the Family, and Education (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 73-102.
20. Juergensmeyer, Mark, The New Cold War: Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley, Los Angeles and Oxford: University of California Press, 1993), 6.
21. J. L. Spaulding, "The Islamic state," in John L. Esposito (ed.), Voices of Resurgent Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 241.
22. John Esposito and John Voll, Islam and Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 92.
23. François Burgat, Face to Face with Political Islam (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2003), 51.
24. Anthony Shadid, Legacy of the Prophet: Despots, Democrats and the New Politics of Islam (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2002), 154.
25. Sayyid Qutb, Social Justice in Islam, trans. by John B. Hardie (New York: Octagon Books, 1970), 39.
26. Sayyid Qutb, Social Justice in Islam, trans. by John B. Hardie (New York: Octagon Books, 1970), 49.
27. Sayyid Qutb, Social Justice in Islam, trans. by John B. Hardie (New York: Octagon Books, 1970), 66.
28. Daniele Hervieu-Leger, Religion as a Chain of Memory (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2000), 34.
29. Hasan Makki, Al-ra'y al-'Am daily, 5 May 2000.
30. Dr. Hassan Mekki: "The Dilemma of the Islamists Movement in the cast aside of the Elite", an interview by Dr. Isam Mahgoub El-Mahi, Al-ra'y al-'Am daily, Khartoum, 17 May 2000.
31. John Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999);
32. Jochen Hippler and Andrea Lueg (eds), The Next Threat: Western Perceptions of Islam (London: Pluto Press with Transnational Institute, 1995);
33. Bobby Sayyid, A Fundamental Fear: Eurocentrism and the Emergence of Islamism (New York: Zed Books, 2002).
34. Mohamed E. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conversations with Hasan al-Turabi (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1998), 31.
35. Hassan A. Turabi, "Islam as a Pan-National Movement and Nation States: And Islamic Doctrine of Human Association"; available from http://www.sufo.demon.co.uk/reli002.htm; accessed 21 January 2001.
36. Toby T. Gati, "Hearing on Current and Projected National Security Threats;" available from www.fas.org/irp/congress/1997_hr/s970205g.htm; accessed on 31 March 2007.
37. Badi II Abu Duqn (1642-81) defeated the Fur, and took control of much of Kordofan.
38. Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769-1849) was appointed as the Ottoman Sultan's Viceroy or wali of Egypt in 1805.
39. David Robinson, Muslim Societies in African History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 27.
40. Roland Robertson, "Globalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity-Heterogeneity," in Mike Featherstone, Scott Lash and Ronald Robertson (eds), Global Modernities (London: Sage Publications, 1997), 25-44.
41. Jay Spaulding, "Precolonial Islam in the Eastern Sudan," in Mehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels (eds), The History of Islam in Africa (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2000), 120.
42. Mekki Shibieka, The Expansionist Movement of Khedive Ismail to the Lakes, in Yusuf Fadl Hasan (ed.), Sudan in Africa, Studies Presented to the First International Conference Sponsored by the Sudan Research Unit 7-12 February 1968 (Khartoum: Khartoum University Press, 1971), 142.
43. Pierre Trèmaux, Voyages to Eastern Sudan and to Septentrionale Africa (1847-1854) (Cairo: Al-Fatima Printing House, 2005), 179.
44. Powell, Eve M. Trout, A Different Shade of Colonialism: Egypt, Great Britain and the Mastery of the Sudan (Berkeley: University of California, 2003), 7.
45. Claude Meillassoux, The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold (Chicago: University Press of Chicago, 1991), 67.
46. Ahmed Sikainga, Slaves into Workers: Emancipation and Labor in Colonial Sudan (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996), 8.
47. Meillassoux, The Anthropology of Slavery, 75.
48. Ozay Mehmet, Islamic identity and development: studies of the Islamic periphery (London, New York: Routledge, c.1990), 179.
49. Tim Niblock, Class and Power in Sudan: The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics 1898-1985 (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1987), 234.
50. Peter Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: the Unstable State (Boulder, Colorado: Rienner, 1990), 13.
51. Sami Zubaida, Islam, the People and the State: Essays on Political Ideas and Movements in the Middle East (London: Routledge, 1989), 40.
52. Peter Cross, "British Attitudes to Sudanese Labour: the Foreign Office Records as Sources for Social History," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 24, No. 2 (1997): 217-60.
53. Peter Berger, The Capitalist Revolution: Fifty Propositions About Prosperty, Equity, and Liberty (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1986), 21.
54. Lord Cromer (1841-1917), a British administrator and statesman.
55. Gabriel R. Warburg, The Sudan Under Wingate, Administration in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1899-1916 (London: Frank Cass, 1971), 49.
56. Peter Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: the Unstable State (Boulder, Colorado: Rienner, 1990), 56.
57. Ahmed Khier, Kifah Jil: Tarikh Harakat al-Khirijin wa Tatawuruha fi al-Sudan: second edition (Khartoum, Sudan: al-Dar al-Sudania, 1970), 21.
58. Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: the Unstable State, 54.
59. Heather J. Sharkey, Living with Colonialism: Nationalism and Culture in the Anglo--Egyptian Sudan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 120.
60. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 157.
61. Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: the Unstable State, 57.
62. Basher Mohamed Said, The Sudan: Crossroads of Africa (London: the Bodley Head, 1965), 33.
63. Oliver Albino, The Sudan: A Southern Viewpoint (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 32.
64. C.H. Stigand, Equatoria: The Lado Enclave (London: Frank Cass, 1968), 201.
65. Hasan Turabi, A Roundtable, in Arthur L. Lowrie (ed.), Islam, Democracy, the State and the West (Tampa: The World and Islam Studies Enterprise, 1993).
66. Ziada Arabab, the Minister of Education's speech at the Conference in Khartoum in February 1957, quoted in Basher Mohamed Said, The Sudan: Crossroads of Africa, 192.
67. Ahmed Khair, Kifah Jil: Tarikh Harakat al-Khirijin wa Tatawuruha fil-Sudan, second edition (Khartoum: al-Dar al-Sudaniyya, 1980), 18.
68. Heather J. Sharkey, Living with Colonialism: Nationalism and Culture in the Anglo--Egyptian Sudan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 120.
69. Heather J. Sharkey, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan (London: Grey Seal Books, 1991), 48.
70. Muhammad al-Khier Abdel Gadir, Nashaat al-Harkah al-Islamia fi l-Sudan 1946-1956 (Khartoum: al-dar l-Sudania lil kutub, 1999), 66.
71. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
72. Mohamed E. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conversations with Hasan al-Turabi (Boulder: Westview Press, 1998), 19.
73. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
74. Hasan Mekki, Harakat al-Ikhwan al-Muslimin fil-Sudan, 1944-1969 (Khartoum: Dar al-Fikr, No Date), 16.
75. Hasan Mekki, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan (London: Grey Seal Books, 1991), 50.
76. Mahmoud Muhammad Galandar, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan (London: Grey Seal Books, 1991), 48.
77. Mekki, Harakat al-Ikhwan al-Muslimin fil-Sudan, 1944-1969: Tarikhua wa Khitabuha al-Siyasi, 11.
78. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conversations with Hasan al--Turabi, 14.
79. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 37.
80. Hasan al-Turabi, Islamic Fundamentalism in the Sunna and Shia Worlds (London: The Sudan Foundation, 1997), 3-11.
81. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage Books, a Division of Random House, Inc, 1993), 32.
82. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage Books, a Division of Random House, Inc, 1993), 32.
83. Mohammed Ayoob, "Political Islam: Image and Reality," World Policy Journal, Vol. 21, No. 3, (2004), 1.
84. Mohmed al-Khier Abdel Gadir, Nashaat al-Harkah al-Islamia fi l-Sudan 1946-1956 (Khartoum: al-dar l-Sudania lil kutub, 1999), 61.
85. Gabriel Warburg, The Sudan Under Wingate: Administration in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899-1916) (London: Frank Cass and Co. Ltd, 1971), 20.
86. Mohamed Mahmoud, "Mahmud Muhammad Taha and the Rise and Demise of Jumhuri Movement", New Political Science: A Journal of Politics & Culture, Vol. 23, No. 1, March (2001), 65-88.
87. Mohamed Mahmoud, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan (London: Grey Seal Books, 1991), 65.
88. The Republican Brothers, "The Republican Thought"; available from http://www.alfikra.org/index_e.php; accessed on 31 March 2007.
89. Muhammad Mahmoud, Taha and the Rise and Demise of the Jumhuri Movement, 74.
90. Abdelwhab el-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan, 53.
91. Abdelwhab el-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan, 153.
92. Abdelwhab el-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan, 153.
93. Abdelwhab el-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan, 62.
94. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 26.
95. Peter Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: the Unstable State (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publisher, 1990), 16.
96. Tim Niblock, Class and Power in Sudan: The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics (New York: State University Press of New York, 1987), 11.
97. Carole Collins, "Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan," MERIP Reports, No. 46 (April, 1976): 6.
98. Victoria Bernal, "Moral Colonial Economy and the Discipline of Development: The Gezira Scheme and 'Modern' Sudan," Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 12, No. 4 (Nov., 1997): 452.
99. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 73.
100. Peter Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: the Unstable State, 16.
101. Peter Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: the Unstable State, 44.
102. Peter Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: the Unstable State, 53.
103. Tim Niblock, Class and Power in Sudan: The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics, 23.
104. Gabriel Warburg, The Sudan Under Wingate: Administration in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899-1916), 50.
105. Tim Niblock, The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics 1898-1985: Class and Power in Sudan (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1987), 204.
106. Tim Niblock, The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics 1898-1985: Class and Power in Sudan (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1987), 204.
107. Tim Niblock, The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics 1898-1985: Class and Power in Sudan (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1987), 49.
108. Saad Edin Fawzi, The Labour Movement in the Sudan, 1946-55 (Oxford University Press, 1957), 34.
109. Peter Cross, "British Attitudes to Sudanese Labour: the Foreign Office Records as Sources for Social History," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 24, No. 2 (1997): 219.
110. Tim Niblock, The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics 1898-1985, 107.
111. Tim Niblock, The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics 1898-1985, 108.
112. Peter Cross, "British Attitudes to Sudanese Labour: the Foreign Office Records as Sources for Social History," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 24, No. 2 (1997).
113. Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil- Military Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957), 2.
114. Eric A. Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, c.1977).
115. Mahmoud 'Abd al-Rahman al-Faki, Al-Quwwat al-Musallaha fi Tarikh al-Sudan al-Hadith [Armed Forces in the History of Modern Sudan 1935-197] (Khartoum: Military Press), 52.
116. Peter Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: the Unstable State, 137.
117. Vladimir I. Lenin, What is to be Done? (London: Penguin, 1988), 143-4.
118. Quoted in Heather J. Sharkey, Living with Colonialism: Nationalism and Culture in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 43.
119. Mohamed Mahmoud, The Discourse of the Ikhwan of Sudan and Secularism, WLUML Dossier, 19 February 1998.
120. Abdelwhab el-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan (London: Grey Seal Books, 1991), 61.
121. Mohamed E. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conversations with Hasan al-Turabi (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1998), 14.
122. Hasan Makki in an interview at his home in Khartoum, January 2006.
123. Hasan Makki in an interview at his home in Omdurman, January 2006.
124. Hamdi, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan (London: Grey Seal Books, 1991), 73.
125. Peter Woodward, Sudan 1898-1989: The Unstable State (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publisher, 1990), 16.
126. Peter K. Bechtold, Politics in the Sudan: Parliamentary and Military Rule in an Emerging African Nation (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1976), 217.
127. Tim Niblock, Class and Power in Sudan: The Dynamics of Sudanese Politics (New York: State University Press of New York, 1987), 23.
128. Bechtold, Politics in the Sudan, 216.
129. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
130. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
131. Niblock, Turabi's Revolution, 73.
132. Niblock, Class and Power in Sudan, 228.
133. El-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution, 99.
134. Mohamed E. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conversations with Hasan al-Turabi (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1998), 14.
135. Mohamed E. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conversations with Hasan al-Turabi (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1998), 15.
136. Hasan Makki, interview by author, audio recording, Khartoum, Sudan, 28 December 2006.
137. Abdullahi Ali Ibrahim, "A Theology of Modernity: Hasan al-Turabi and Islamic Renewal in Sudan," Africa Today, Vols. 3-4 (Summer/Autumn) 1999: 164-222.
138. Muhammad al-Nur b. Dayf Allah, Kitab al-tabaqat fi khusus al-awliya' wa 'l-salihin wa 'l-'ulam ' wa 'l-shu'ara' fi 'l-Sudan by Yusuf Fadl Hasan, Muhammad al-Nur b. Dayf Allah (Khartoum: Khartoum University Press, 1985), 160.
139. Abdullahi Ali Ibrahim, "A Theology of Modernity", 164-222.
140. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader, 38.
141. Gabriel Warburg, Islam, Sectarianism and Politics in Sudan Since the Mahdiyya (London: Hurst and Company, 2003), 180.
142. El-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution, 81.
143. Abdelwhab El-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan (London: Grey Seal Books, 1991), 81.
144. Harold D. Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan, Power and Society: A Framework of Political Inquiry (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976), 252.
145. Abdel Salam Sidahmed, Politics and Islam in Contemporary Sudan (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), 95-112.
146. Warburg, Islam, Sectarianism and Politics in Sudan Since the Mahdiyya, 182.
147. Bechtold, Politics in the Sudan, 260-61.
148. Mohamed Omer Beshir, Revolution and Nationalism in the Sudan (London: Rex Collings, 1974), 228.
149. Niblock, Class and Power in Sudan, 250.
150. Mohamed Saied al-Gadal, al-Hizib al-Shuii wa Inqlab 25 Mayo (the Communist Party and the May 25th Coup) (Khartoum: dar al-Zahraa, 1986), 32.
151. Mohamed Saied al-Gadal, al-Hizib al-Shuii wa Inqlab 25 Mayo (the Communist Party and the May 25th Coup) (Khartoum: dar al-Zahraa, 1986), 32.
152. Mohamed Saied al-Gadal, al-Hizib al-Shuii wa Inqlab 25 Mayo (the Communist Party and the May 25th Coup) (Khartoum: dar al-Zahraa, 1986), 33.
153. Mohamed Saied al-Gadal, al-Hizib al-Shuii wa Inqlab 25 Mayo (the Communist Party and the May 25th Coup) (Khartoum: dar al-Zahraa, 1986), 32.
154. Niblock, Class and Power in Sudan, 265.
155. Mansour Khalid, Nimeiri and the Revolution of Dis-May (London: KPI Limited, 1985), 60.
156. Mahmoud Muhammad Galandar, Sanawat al-Nimairi: Tawthiq wa Tahlil li-Ahdath wa Waqa'i' Sanawat Hukm 25 Mayu fil-Sudan (Omdurman: Markaz 'Abd al-Karim Mirghani, 2005), 263.
157. El-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution, 113.
158. Khalid, Nimeiri and the Revolution of Dis-May, 255.
159. Khalid, Nimeiri and the Revolution of Dis-May, 10.
160. Warburg, Islam, Sectarianism and Politics in Sudan Since the Mahdiyya, 153.
161. Khalid, Nimeiri and the Revolution of Dis-May, 257.
162. Hasan Makki, interview by author, audio recording, Khartoum, Sudan, 28 December 2006.
163. Hasan Makki, interviewed by the author at his office, recording, Khartoum, Sudan, 4 January 2006.
164. Isam al-Din Mergahni, al-Jiash al-Sudani wa al-Sayysa (Sudanese Army and Politics),
165. Haydar Ibrahim, Siqout al-Mashru al-Hadari (The Collapse of the Civilizatioanl Project),
166. Abdel Rahman al-Amin, Saat al-Sifr (Zero Hour).
167. Abdel Rahman al-Amin, Maqqalat an al-Hrakah al-Islamiyya fi al-Sudan (Articles About the Islamist Movement in the Sudan) (Khartoum: al-Dar al-Sudnia lil Kutub, 2003), 72.
168. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
169. Ghazi Salah al-Din al-'Atabani, interview by author, recording, Khartoum, Sudan, 4 January 2006.
170. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
171. Al-Tijani Abdel Gadir, "al-Rasimaluon al-Islamoon, mada yafaloon fi al-harka al-Islamia" [The Islamists Capitalists: What do they do with the Islamic Movement?] (Khartoum: Al-Sahafa daily, 12 December, 2006).
172. Abdelwhab El-Affendi, "Mudilat al-Suber Tanziem fi Siraat al-Islamien (Safi al-Sudan" [The dilemma of the Super Organization in the struggle among the (foIslamists in the Sudan] (Khartoum: Al-Shahafa daily, 29 November 2006).
173. T. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, In Whose Image? Political Islam and Urban Practices in Sudan (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), 192.
174. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
175. Mahmood Mamdani, Q & A Asia Source Interview, http://www.asiasource.org/news/special_reports/mamdani.cfm.
176. Peter K. Bechtold, Politics in the Sudan: Parliamentary and Military Rule in an Emerging African Nation (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1976), 269.
177. Bona Malwal, The Sudan: A Second Challenge to Nationhood (New York: Thornton Books, 1985), 15.
178. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
179. Mansour Khalid, Nimairi and the Revolution of Dis-May (London: KPI Limited, 1985), 143.
180. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
181. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
182. Abdullahi Ali Ibrahim, "A Theology of Modernity: Hasan al-Turabi and Islamic Renewal in Sudan," Africa Today, Vols. 3-4 (Summer/Autumn, 1999): 164-222.
183. Abdullahi Ali Ibrahim, al-Wifaq wa al-firaq bien (al-Umma) wa (al-Jabhaa) fi al-Sudan: 1958-1995. [Agreement and Disagreement between (al-Umma) and the [Islamic] (Front) in the Sudan: 1958-1995] (Cairo: Umma Party External Information Publications, 1995), 14.
184. Al-Sadiq al-Mahdi, al-Wifaq wa al-firaq bien (al-Umma) wa (al-Jabhaa) fi al-Sudan: 1958-1995. [Agreement and Disagreement between (al-Umma) and the [Islamic] (Front) in the Sudan: 1958-1995] (Cairo: Umma Party External Information Publications, 1995), 10.
185. Al-Sadiq al-Mahdi, al-Islmiuoon fi al-Sudan: Dirasat al-Tatour al-Fikri wa al-Syasi 1969-1985 (The Islamists in the Sudan: a Study of the Ideological and Political Development 1969-1985) (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr lil Tibaa wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzie, 2004), 102.
186. Ann Mosely Lesch, The Sudan: Contested National Identities (Indiana University Press, 1998), 134.
187. Hasan Hanafi, "The Relevance of the Islamic Alternative in Egypt," Arab Studies Quarterly, Vol. 4, Nos. 1-2 (1982): 60-62.
188. Khalid Medani, "Funding Fundamentalism: the Political Economy of an Islamist State" in Joel Beinin and Joe Stork, Political Islam: Essays from Middle East Report (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 168.
189. Abdel Salam Sidahmed, Politics and Islam in Contemporary Sudan (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), 195.
190. Akbar Ahmed, Discovering Islam: Making Sense of Muslim History and Society (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 201-213.
191. Robert L. Tignor, "The Sudanese Private Sector: An Historical Overview," The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 25, No. 2 (1987): 201.
192. Robert L. Tignor, "The Sudanese Private Sector: An Historical Overview," The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 25, No. 2 (1987):, 200.
193. Robert L. Tignor, al-Wifaq wa al-firaq bien (al-Umma) wa (al-Jabhaa) fi al-Sudan, 10.
194. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader, 15.
195. Abdelwhab El-Affendi, Turabi's Revolution: Islam and Power in Sudan (London: Grey Seal Books, 1991), 113.
196. Faisal Islamic Bank Sudan, Annual Report, 1984 (Khartoum: 1985), 2.
197. Haydar Ibrahim, Siqout al-Mashru al-Hadari (The Collapse of the Civilizational Project).
198. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
199. Hidar Taha, al-askar wa al-Inqdh (Cairo: Markaz al-Hadara al-Arabia, 1993), 55.
200. Abdelwhab El-Affendi, "Mudilat al-Suber Tanziem fi Siraat al-Islamien (Sabiqan) fi al-Sudan" [The dilemma of the Super Organization in the struggle among the (former) Islamists in the Sudan] (Khartoum, Al-Shahafa daily, 29 November 2006).
201. Amin Hasan Omer, al-Mushrou al-Islami al-Sudani: Qiraat fi al-Fikr wa al-Mumarsa [The Sudanese Islamic Project: Readings in the Ideology and Practice] (Khartoum: Markaz al-Dirasat wa al-Bihouth al-Igtimaitatu, 1995), 23.
202. Charles Tripp, "States, Elites and the 'Management of Change'" in Hassan Hakimian and Ziba Moshaver (eds), The State and Global Change: The Political Economy of Transition in the Middle East and North Africa (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2001), 212.
203. Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror (New York: Pantheon books, 2004), 8.
204. Ernest Gellner in his book Muslim Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)
205. Postmodernism, Reason and Religion (London: Routledge, 1992)
206. Gellner, Postmodernism, 6-22.
207. Charles Tripp, "States, Elites and the 'Management of Change'" in Hassan Hakimian and Ziba Moshaver (eds), The State and Global Change: The Political Economy of Transition in the Middle East and North Africa (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2001), 211-31.
208. John B. Thompson, Editor's Introduction, in Claude Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society: Bureaucracy, Democracy, Totalitarianism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1986), 6.
209. Haydar Ibrahim Ali, suq t al-Mashrou al-Hadari [The failure of the Civilizational Project] (Khartoum: the Sudanese Studies Center, No Date), 52.
210. Al-sadiq al-Mahdi, al-Wigaq wa al-Firaq bayin "al-Umma" wa "al-Jabha" fi l-Sudan 1958-1995 [Agreement and Disagreement between the "Umma" and the "Front" in the Sudan 1985-1995] (Cairo: The Umma Party External Information Unit, 1995), 43.
211. Benito Mussolini, "The Doctrine of Fascism", available from http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm; accessed on 31 March 2007.
212. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
213. Peter L. Berger, The Capitalist Revolution: Fifty Propositions about Property, Equality, and Liberty (New York: Basic Books, Inc. 1986), 83.
214. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
215. Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society, 286-9.
216. Abdul Rashid Moten, "Islamic Thought in Contemporary Pakistan: The Legacy of 'All ma Mawd d" (ed.), Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi, The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought (Blackwell Publishing: Malden, 2006), 181.
217. Abul A'la Maududi, Islamic Law and Constitution, Translated by Kurshid Ahmad (Delhi: Taj Company, 1986), 144-7.
218. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
219. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
220. John L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 135.
221. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
222. Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, "Mawdudi and the Jama'at-I Islami: The Origins, Theory and Practice of Islamic Revivalism," in Ali Rahnema (ed.), Pioneers of Islamic Revival (London: Zed Books, 2005), 108.
223. Youssef M. Choueiri, Islamic Fundamentalism (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990), 94.
224. Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age 1798-1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 103.
225. Reinhard Schulze, "How Medieval is Islam? Muslim Intellectuals and Modernity" in Hochen Hippler and Andrea Lueg (eds), The Next Threat: Western Perceptions of Islam (Chipping Norton: Pluto Press, 1994), 59.
226. Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, "Mawdudi and the Jama'at-I Islami: The Origins, Theory and Practice of Islamic Revivalism," in Ali Rahnema (ed.), Pioneers of Islamic Revival (London: Zed Books, 2005), 105.
227. Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, "Mawdudi and the Jama'at-I Islami: The Origins, Theory and Practice of Islamic Revivalism," in Ali Rahnema (ed.), Pioneers of Islamic Revival (London: Zed Books, 2005), 108.
228. Alfred Schutz, "Common-sense and Scientific Interaction in Human Action" in Collected Papers Vol 1 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1954).
229. Mohamed E. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conversations with Hasan al-Turabi (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1998), 14.
230. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
231. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1994), 24.
232. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1994), 24.
233. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1994), 41.
234. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
235. T. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, In Whose Image? Political Islam and Urban Practice in Sudan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 85.
236. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (San Diego: HBJ A Harvest/HBJ Book, 1979), 375.
237. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
238. Roy, The Failure of Political Islam, 40-41.
239. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
240. Hassan al-Turabi, "The Islamic State," in John L. Esposito (ed.), Voices of Resurgent Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 241-51.
241. Ahmed Moussalli, Moderate and Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: The Quest for Modernity, Legitimacy, and the Islamic State (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999), 155-80.
242. Arthur L. Lowrie, Islam, Democracy, the State and the West, 13.
243. Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society.
244. Isam Mahgoub El-Mahi, "Dr. Hassan Mekki: The Dilemma of the Islamists Movement in the cast aside of the Elite," Al-ra'y al-'Am daily, 17 May 2000, Khartoum.
245. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
246. Charles Tripp, "States, Elites and the 'Mangement of Change'" in Hassan Hakimian and Ziba Moshaver (eds), The State and Global Change: The Political Economy of Transition in the Middle East and North Africa (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2001), 219.
247. Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society, 120.
248. Isam Mahgoub El-Mahi, "Dr. Hassan Mekki: The Dilemma of the Islamists Movement in the cast aside of the Elite," Al-ra'y al-'Am daily, 17 May 2000, Khartoum.
249. Simone, In Whose Image? Political Islam and Urban Practice in Sudan, 66.
250. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
251. Ibrahim al-Desouqi 2000. "What were the reasons that Lead to Ramadan Resolutions? And What is the Duty of the Islamists Government Then?" Al-ra'y al-'Am daily, 8 March 2000;
252. al-Tayib Zein al-Abdeen, in Al-ra'y al-'Am daily, Khartoum 2000
253. Hasan Mekki, during the same period and referred to by Abdel Rahim 'Umar Mohy al-Din in his Book al-Turabi wa al-Igahd: Siraa' al-Hawa wa al-Hawiya, 131.
254. Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society, 116.
255. Ralf Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1959), 54.
256. Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society, 117.
257. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (San Diego: HBJ A Harvest/HBJ Book, 1979), 382.
258. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader, 73.
259. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, 384.
260. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader, 9.
261. Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, "Beset by Contradictions: Islamization, Legal Reform and Human Rights in Sudan"; available from http://www.africaaction.org/docs97/sud9701.lch.htm; accessed on 31 March 2007.
262. Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society.
263. Arthur L. Lowrie (ed.), Islam, Democracy, the State and the West: A Round Table with Dr. Hasan Turabi (Tampa: The World and Islam Studies Enterprise, 1993), 67.
264. 'Umar Muhy al-Din, al-Turabi wa al-Ingahad: Siraa' al-Hawa wa al-Hawiya Fitnat al-Islamien fi al-Sulta min Muzakirat al-Ashara ila Muzakirat a-Tahahum maa John Garang. (Khartoum, Marawi Bookshop, 2006) 434-5.
265. Arthur L. Lowrie, Islam, Democracy, the State and the West, 29.
266. Hasan al-Turabi, "Challenging Times, but Madinah is our Model", Impact International (London, 12 February-11 March): 7-9.
267. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
268. Arthur L. Lowrie, Islam, Democracy, the State and the West, 94.
269. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
270. The Holy Quran (16:125).
271. Dale F. Eickelman and James Piscatori, Muslim Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 35.
272. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
273. Carrie Rosefsky Wickham, Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism, and Political Change in Egypt (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 126.
274. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
275. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
276. Al-Taj Fadl Allah, interview by author, audio recording, Khartoum, Sudan, 30 December 2005.
277. Alex de Waal and A. H. Abdel Salam, "Islamism, State, and Jihad in the Sudan" in Alex de Waal (ed.), Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2004), 89.
278. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
279. Alex De Waal article, "Creating Devastation and Calling it Islam: The War for the Nuba, Sudan", in SAIS Review, Vol. XXI, No. 2 (Summer-Fall 2001): 117-32.
280. Alex de Waal, "Averting Genocide in the Nuba Mountains, Sudan"; available from http://howgenocidesend.ssrc.org/de_Waal2/; Internet; accessed 31 March 2007.
281. Alex de Waal and A. H. Abdel Salam, "Islamism, State, and Jihad in the Sudan" in Alex de Waal (ed.), Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2004), 90.
282. The International Crisis Group, God, Oil, and Country: Changing the Logic of War in Sudan (Brussels: The International Crisis Group Press, 2002), 104.
283. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
284. J. Millard Burr and Robert O. Collins, Revolutionary Sudan: Hasan al-Turabi and the Islamist State, 1989-2000 (Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2003), 18.
285. M. A. Mohamed Salih, "Tribal Militias, SPLA/SPLM and The Sudanese State: 'New Wine in Old Bottles'" a paper presented in the Management of the Crisis in the Sudan: Proceedings of the Bergen Forum 23-24 February 1989; available from http://www.fou.uib.no/fd/1996/f/712001/index.htm; Internet; accessed on 31 March 2007.
286. Douglas H. Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2003), 151.
287. M.A. Mohamed Salih, "Tribal Militias, SPLA/SPLM and The Sudanese State: 'New Wine in Old Bottles'", in Management of the Crisis in the Sudan: Proceedings of the Bergen Forum 23-24 February 1989. Edited by Abdel Faffar Mohmed Ahmed and Gunnar Sorbo, available from http://www.fou.uib.no/fd/1996/f/712001/backmoh.htm, accessed October 2007.
288. Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars, 128.
289. de Waal, "Averting Genocide in the Nuba Mountains, Sudan."
290. Alex de Waal and A. H. Abdel Salam, "Islamism, State, and Jihad in the Sudan" in Alex de Waal (ed.), Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2004), 90.
291. Child Soldiers Global Report 2004 (London: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 2004), 318.
292. UN High Commissioner of Refugees, 2004 Supplementary Appeal for Sudan (Geneva, Switzerland, 2004).
293. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 56.
294. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 57.
295. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 60.
296. Arthur L. Lowrie, Islam, Democracy, the State and the West, 55.
297. Arthur L. Lowrie, Islam, Democracy, the State and the West, 56.
298. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 57.
299. Hamdi, Mohamed E., The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conversations with Hasan al-Turabi (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1998).
300. Hassan A. Turabi, "Islam as a Pan-National Movement and Nation States: And Islamic Doctrine of Human Association"; available from http://www.sufo.demon.co.uk/reli002.htm; Internet; accessed 21 January 2001.
301. Ali Dinar Sudan News and Views, Issue 4, 1994.
302. Montasser al-Zayyat, The Road to al-Gaeda: the Story of Bun Laden's Right-Hand Man, (London, Pluto, Press, 2004) 57.
303. Bruce Lawrence (ed) Messages to the World: Statements of Osama Bin Laden, (London, Verso, 2005) 55.
304. Scott Bobb, "Sudan Power Struggle", Voice of America (Khartoum, 23 December 1999).
305. Mohamed E. Hamdi, The Making of an Islamic Political Leader: Conversations with Hasan al-Turabi (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1998), 59.
306. Al-Tijani Abdel Qadir, "Ikhwanuna al-Siqar wa Mshariihim al-Kubra" [Our young Brothers and their big projects] (Khartoum, al-sahafa daily, 26 November 2006).
307. Antonio Gramsci, Prison Notebooks (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 105.
308. Hasan Makki, Al-ra'y al-'Am daily, 5 May 2000.
309. Hasan Makki, "Hassan Turabi and the Limits of Modern Islamic Reformism", in Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi (ed.), The Blackwell Campanion to Contemporary Islamic Thought (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), 157.
310. Abdullahi Ali Ibrahim article "Shaikh Abdel Hai Yusuf: Mowatanat al-Ahar Beina al-Istithna' wa al-Taqwa" [Shaikh Abdel Hai Yusuf: Citizenship of the Other and the Politics of Piety].
311. Sami Zubaida, Law and Power in the Islamic Law (London: I.B. Tauris, 2003), 2.
312. Fazlur Rahman, Islam, second edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 116.
313. Sami Zubaida, Law and Power in the Islamic Law (London: I.B. Tauris, 2003), 11.
314. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
315. Fazlur Rahman, Islam, second edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 102.
316. Nazih Ayubi, Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab World (London: Routledge, 1977), 33.
317. Peter L. Perger, The Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1967), 133-4.
318. Qamaruddin Khan, Political Concepts in the Qur'an (Lahore: Islamic Book Foundation, 1982), 74.
319. Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977), 52.
320. Nazih Ayubi, Political Islam, 29.
321. Nazih Ayubi, "Islam and Democracy," in David Porter, David Goldbalatt, Margaret Kiloh, and Paul Lewis (eds), Democratization (Cambridge: Polity Press and the Open University, 1997), 347.
322. Nazih Ayubi, "Islam and Democracy," in David Porter, David Goldbalatt, Margaret Kiloh, and Paul Lewis (eds), Democratization (Cambridge: Polity Press and the Open University, 1997), 348.
323. Gabriel R. Warburg, "Islam and State in Numayri's Sudan, Africa", Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 55, No. 4 (1985): 400-413.
324. John O. Voll, "The Eastern Sudan, 1822 to Present", in Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels (eds), The History of Islam in Africa (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2000), 160.
325. Sami Zubaida, Law and Power in the Islamic Law (London: I.B. Tauris, 2003), 74.
326. J. L. Spaulding, "The Evolution of the Islamic Judiciary in Sinnar", The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 10, No. 3 (1977): 408-26.
327. Hasan al-Turabi, "The Islamic state," in John L. Esposito (ed.), Voices of Resurgent Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 241.
328. Hasan al-Turabi, "The Islamic state," in John L. Esposito (ed.), Voices of Resurgent Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 242-3.
329. John Esposito and John Voll, Islam and Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 92.
330. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
331. Abdullahi Ali Ibrahim, "A Theology of Modernity: Hasan al-Turabi and Islamic Renewal in Sudan," Africa Today, Vols. 3-4 (Summer/Autumn 1999): 164-222.
332. Hassan A. Turabi, "Islam as a Pan-National Movement and Nation States: And Islamic Doctrine of Human Association"; available from http://www.sufo.demon.co.uk/reli002.htm; Internet; accessed 21 January 2001.
333. Abdullahi Ali Ibrahim, "A Theology of Modernity: Hasan al-Turabi and Islamic Renewal in Sudan," 164-222.
334. Tim Niblock, "Islamic Movements and Sudan's Political Coherence," in Harve Bluechot, Christian Delmet and Derek Hopwood (eds), Sudan: History, Identity, Ideologies (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1991), 263.
335. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
336. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
337. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
338. Abdullahi Ali Ibrahim, "A Theology of Modernity: Hasan al-Turabi and Islamic Renewal in Sudan," 164-222.
339. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
340. Tim Niblock, "Islamic Movements and Sudan's Political Coherence," in Harve Bluechot, Christian Delmet and Derek Hopwood (eds), Sudan: History, Identity, Ideologies (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1991), 263.
341. T. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, In Whose Image? Political Islam and Urban Practices in Sudan (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), 99.
342. Asharq al-Awsat, Newspaper, 16 July 2000.
343. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, In Whose Image? Political Islam and Urban Practices in Sudan, 99.
344. al-Tyib Zien al-Abideen, Al-Ra'y al-'Am, Newspaper, 7 June 1999.
345. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, In Whose Image? Political Islam and Urban Practices in Sudan, 91.
346. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, In Whose Image? Political Islam and Urban Practices in Sudan, 84.
347. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, In Whose Image? Political Islam and Urban Practices in Sudan, 86.
348. Arthur L. Lowrie (ed.), Islam, Democracy, the State and the West: A Round Table With Dr. Hasan Turabi (Tampa: The World of Islam Studies Enterprise, 1993), 26.
349. Jemera Rone, "Religious Persecution in Sudan," Testimony before the USA Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Subcommittee on Africa (Human Rights Watch, 1997).
350. Al-Sahafa, Newspaper, 10 February 2000.
351. Abdel Salam Sidahmed, Politics and Islam in Contemporary Sudan (Surrey, UK: Curzon Press, 1997), 223.
352. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
353. Ralf Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1959), 54.
354. Claude Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society: Bureaucracy, Democracy, Totalitarianism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1986), 117.
355. John Downing, International Media Theory: Transition, Power, Theory (London: Sage Publications, 1996), 26.
356. John Downing, International Media Theory: Transition, Power, Theory (London: Sage Publications, 1996), 67.
357. Miklos Haraszti, The Velvet Prison (New York: Basic Books, 1987), 87.
358. Ralf Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1959), 176.
359. Antonio Gramsci, Prison Notebooks (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 1139.
360. J. Millard Burr and Robert O. Collins, The Revolutionary Sudan: Hasan al-Turabi and the Islamist State, 1989-2000 (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2003), 279.
361. 'J. Millard Burr and Robert O. Collins 'Umar Muhy al-Din, al-Turabi was al-Inqadh; Siraa al-Haw wa al--Hawia Fitnat al-Islamien fi al-Sulta min Muzakirt al-Asharaa ila Muzakirat al-tafahum maa John Garang (Khartoum: Marawi Bookshop, 2006), 412.
362. 'Abd al-Rahim 'Umar Muhy al-Din, al-Turabi was al-Inqadh; Siraa al-Haw wa al--Hawia Fitnat al-Islamien fi al-Sulta min Muzakirt al-Asharaa ila Muzakirat al-tafahum maa John Garang (Khartoum: Marawi Bookshop, 2006), 448.
363. International Crisis Group, God, Oil, and Country: Changing the Logic of War in Sudan (Brussels: International Crisis Group Press, 2002), 42.
364. Muhy al-Din, al-Turabi was al-Inqadh, 412.
365. El-Tag Fadl Allah, interview by author, audio recording, Khartoum, Sudan, 30 December 2005.
366. T. Abdou Maliqalim Simone, In Whose Image? Political Islam and Urban Practices in Sudan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 205.
367. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
368. Cliford Geertz, Old Societies and New States (New York: Free Press, 1963).
369. William Willis, "The Black Book history or Darfur's darkest chapter" (London: Financial Times, Saturday 21 August 2004).
370. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
371. The Black Book: Imbalance of Power and Wealth in the Sudan, available from http://www.sudanjem.com/sudan-alt/english/books/blackbook_part1/blackbook_part1_20040422_bbone.pdf; Internet; accessed on 31 March 2007.
372. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
373. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
374. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
375. Abdullahi O. El-Tom, "Review article - The Black Book: Imbalance of Power and Wealth in Sudan"; available from http://www.ossrea.net/publications/newsletter/oct02/article9.htm; Internet; accessed on 31 March 2007.
376. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
377. The Black Book: Imbalance of Power and Wealth in Sudan.
378. Willis, "The Black Book history or Darfur's darkest chapter".
379. Muhy al-Din, al-Turabi was al-Inqadh, 461.
380. Alex de Waal, "Counter-Insurgency on the Cheap"; available from http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n15/waal01_.html; Internet; accessed on 31 March 2007.
381. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 10.
382. Muhy al-Din, al-Turabi was al-Inqadh, 460.
383. Simone, In Whose Image? 126.
384. "Kasha" is an Arabic term meaning to drive away or round up. It refers in this context to the mass arrest and deportation of thousands of displaced southerners and westerners from the Khartoum slums.
385. Burr and Collins, Revolutionary Sudan, 278.
386. Alex de Waal (ed.), Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2004), 112.
387. Al-Sahafi al-Dawli, Khartoum, 7 February 2001.
388. UN Security Council, Press Release SC/8290, 1 November 2005.