Islam and Nationalism: Central Asia and Kazakhstan Under Soviet Rule

Central Asian Survey

Volumn 2, Issue 2, 1983, Pages 7-87

  Rakowska Harmstone, Teresa ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84900117235     PISSN: 02634937     EISSN: 14653354     Source Type: Trade Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02634938308400427     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. The treatment here represents an extreme shortcut with emphasis on points of relevance to the chapter. It is based on standard Western sources such as: Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923 (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1954); Alexander G. Park, Bolshevism in Turkestan, 1917–1927 (New York, Columbia University Press, 1957); Geoffrey Wheeler, The Modern History of Soviet Central Asia (New York, Frederick A. Praeger, 1964); Alexandre Bennigsen and Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, Islam in the Soviet Union, (New York, Frederick A. Praeger, 1967); and others, as well as S. P. Tolstov et al., Narody Srednei Azii i Kazakhstana, (Moscow, Izd. AN SSSR), V. I, 1962 and V. II, 1963, and this author's Russia and Nationalism in Central Asia: The Case of Tadzhikistan Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970).
2. Standard Soviet references to the area distinguish Kazakhstan from Central Asia proper (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkrnenia and Kirghizia), but Muslim groups discussed here are referred to as Central Asians, and the region as a whole as Central Asia, inclusive of ICazakhs and Kazakhstan.
3. In the Imperial period the Kazakhs were known as Kirghiz, and the Kirghiz as Kara-Kirghiz.
4. M. V. Frunze, “Communist Difficulties in Turkestan, 1920“, quoted in X. J. Eudin and R. C. North, Soviet Russia and the East, 1920 – 1927. A Documentary Survey (Stanford, Stanford University press 1957), p. 49.
5. Tolstoy, op. cit, V. II, pp. 631–661.
6. Rasma Silde-Karklins, The Interrelationship of Soviet Foreign and Nation ality Policies: The Case of the Foreign Minorities of the USSR, unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Chicago, 1975, p. 312 and passim.
7. V. A. Belova, Chislo detei v sem’e, (Moscow, 1975).
8. Murray Feshbach, “Prospects for Outmigration from Central Asia and Kazakhstan in the Next Decade”, pp. 656–709 in Soviet Economy in a Time of Change, A Compendium of Papers submitted to the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, (Washington, GPO, 1979), pp. 673–674.
9. Viktor Perevedentsev in Literatumaia Gazeta, No. 33, August 13, 1975, quoted by the Current Digest of the Soviet Press (CDSP), V. 27, No. 49, p. 19.
10. Viktor Perevedentsev Metody izucheniia migratsii naseleniia, Akademiia Nauk SSR, Institut Mezhdunarodnogo Rabochego Dvizheniia (Moscow, Izd. “Nauka”, 1975), pp. 63-64,146,125-127.
11. Feshbach, op. cit pp. 659–677.
12. Perevedentsev, Metody, discloses that Russian women constitute a majority of Russian migrants into Central Asia, because it is easier to get married there: “According to officials in cadre departments of Central Asian enterprises [the women’s] desire to get married and a relative ease of setting up families in Central Asia is of major importance”, pp. 121–122.
13. Murray Feshbach, “The Soviet Union: Population Trends and Dilemmas”, Population Bulletin, vol. 37, no. 3, August 1982, pp. 21–22.
14. Talib Sarymsakovich Saidbaev, Islam i obshchestvo: Opyt istorikosotsio-logicheskogo issledovaniia (Moscow, Glavnaia redaktsiia vostochnoi litera-tury, Izd. “Nauka”, 1978), p. 163.
15. Gregory J. Mas sell, The Surrogate Proletariat: Muslim Women and Revolutionary Strategies in Soviet Central Asia: 1919–1929 (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 408–409.
16. S. D. Kakabaev, “Ot kochev’ev k osedlosti”, pp. 89–110 in Velikii Oktiabr i sotsial’no-ekonomicheskii progress v Turkmenistane, AN Turkmenskoi SSR, Insdtut Istorii im. Batyrova (Ashkhabad, Izd. “Ylym”, 1977), pp-91-102, and this author’s Russia, Ch. 2.
17. In Tajikistan, for example, the membership of the Tajik Communist Party fell from 14,239 to 4,791 between January 1, 1933 and January 1, 1935. This author’s Russia 40.
18. This and the following paragraph are based on Saidbaev, op. cit., pp. 167–172.
19. For a detailed analysis of the pattern in Tajikistan see this author’s Russia.•., Chapters 4 and 5.
20. For further development of these themes see this author’s “Ethnicity in the Soviet Union”, pp. 73–87, The Annals of the American Academy of Politi- cal and Social Science, “Ethnic Conflict in the World Today”, No. 433 (September, 1977).
21. Chairmen of Councils of Ministers in the USSR Council of Ministers; Chairmen of Presidia of Supreme Soviets in the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet; and Chairmen of Supreme Courts in the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Court.
22. Bulletin Ministers tv a Vysshego i Srednego spetsiaVnogo obrazovaniia SSSR9 No. 9, September 1979, pp. 19-26.1 am indebted for this reference to Ann Sheehy. For a discussion of the policy of linguistic Russification see Isabelle Kreindler, “The Changing Status of Russian in the Soviet Union”, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 33, 1982.
23. This paragraph is based on N. S. Sarsenbaev, Obychai, traditsii i obshchest-vennaia zhizn’, (Alma-Ata, Izd. “Kazakhstan”, 1974); G. N. Nadzhimov, “Rol’ narodnykh traditsii v intematsionaTnom vospitanii tru diash chi khsia”, pp. 124–130, in Bratsvo narodov i intematsionaVnoe vospitanie (Tashkent, Ministerstvo Vysshi Sred. Spets. Obrazovaniia UZSSR, 1974); also Saidbaev, op. cit. and N. Ashirov, Islam i natsii (Moscow, Politizdat, 1975).
24. Sarsenbaev, op. cit., p. 7.
25. A. Petukhov in Novyi Mirf No. 6,1969, p. 271, quoted ibid.
26. G. S. Bartishchev, Leninism i dialektika obshchestvennogo razvitiia (Moscow, 1970), quoted ibid.
27. Viktor Perevedentsev in Komsomo Uskaia Pravda, January 28, 1976, quoted in CDSP, V. 28, No. 4, February 25,1976, p. 1.
28. D. Valentei and A. Kvasha, “Socio-economic problems of national populations in the USSR in long-range perspective” pp. 3–16, in D. I. Valentei et al., eds., Demograficheskaia Situatsiia v SSSR (Moscow, 1976), p. 15.
29. L. A. Arutiunian, Sotsialisticheskii zakon narodonaseleniia (Moscow, Izd. “Nauka”, 1975), p. 90. Arutiunian won a diploma in the second All-Union competition for young scholars in the social sciences for this publication.
30. Based on Alexandre Bennigsen and Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, “Official Islam in the Soviet Union”, Religion in Communist Lands, pp. 148–159, V. 7, No. 3, 1979, unless otherwise indicated.
31. Izvestiia9 28 January, 1978.
32. John Barron, KGB: The Secret Work of Soviet Secret Agents (New York, Bantam Books, 1974), pp. 140–141.
33. Arab Report, 20 June, 1979, p. 6; Muslims of the Soviet East No. 4 (44) 1979, pp. 13–14, and Craig R. Whitney, International Herald Tribune, 14 April, 1980.
34. Arab Report and Whitney, op. cit.
35. Tolstov, op. cit., V. I, p. 323.
36. Ashirov, op. cit. pp. 53–93.
37. N. Ashirov, “Islam i natsional’nye otnosheniia”, pp. 34–38, Nauka i Religiia, No. 2, (February 1974), pp. 36–37.
38. Saidbaev, op. cit. Sarsenbaev, op. cit. and other sources cited here.
39. Radio Moscow Broadcast in Turkish (5 April 1979, 1400 GMT), quoted by Bennigsen and Lemerder-Quelquejay, Official Islam, p. 159.
40. S. M. Abramzon, Kirgizy i ikh etnogeneticheskie i istoriko-ku T tumye sviazi, AN SSSR, Institut Etnografti im. N. N. Miklukho-Maklaia, (Lenin-grad Izd. “Nauka” 1971), pp. 268–271 and 313–318, and Tolstov, V. II, passim.
41. Ashirov, Islam i natsii, p. 39.
42. Saidbaev op. cit. p. 165.
43. Rasma Karklins, “Islam: How Strong is it in the Soviet Union?”, Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviertique, XXI, No. 1.
44. Saidbaev, op. cit. pp. 225–227.
45. Nauka i Religiia, 1965, No. 12, p. 10, quoted. ibid.
46. Saidbaev, op. cit. p. 191.
47. Bennigsen and Quelquejay, Zr/am_, pp. 178–183.
48. Saidbaev, op. cit. p. 191.
49. Sarsenbaev, op. cit. p. 177.
50. Saidbaev, op. cit., pp. 195 and 210. The universal practice of circumcision is confirmed by other sources, such as Tolstov.
51. Karklins, Islam
52. Ashirov, Islam i natsii, 63.
53. Abramzon, op. cit., p. 261.
54. Saidbaev, op. cit. p. 217.
55. Saidbaev, op. cit., pp. 227-229; Abramzon, op. cit., pp. 213-256; Sarsen-baev, op. cit., pp. 156-174; Karklins, Islam… and A. N. Narynbaev, “Opyt sotsiologicheskogo issledovaniia mezhnatsional’nogo braka”, pp. 57–75, Natsiia i natsiona Vnye otnosheniia, AN Kirghizskoi SSR, Institut Filo-zofii i Prava (Frunze, “Him”, 1966), pp. 73–74.
56. Saidbaev, op. cit. pp. 194, 229; Narynbaev, op. cit. pp. 64-73; Karklins, Islam.; Ashirov, Islam i natsii, pp. 78-80; Ashirov, Islam i natsiona V-. p. 35.
57. Ashirov, Islam i natsii, p. 67.
58. Sarsenbaev, op. cit. pp. 175, 187-8; Saidbaev, op. cit., pp. 210, 231; Abramzon, op. cit., pp. 318-338; Ashirov, Islam t natsii, pp. 66-69; Karklins, Islam
59. Sarsenbaev, op. cit 4 p. p. 148; and Whitney, op. cit.
60. Ashirov, Islam i natsii, pp. 63-65; Saidbaev, op. cit. pp. 208, 209, 213; Sarsenbaev, op. cit., pp. 176,195.
61. For a description of the cult of saints in Turkmenia see, for example, N. N. Vasilov, ' Teni Sviatykh”, Nauka i Religiia, No. 9, 1964, pp, 54–57.
62. Saidbaev, op. cit. p. 210.
63. Ashirov, Islam i natsii 65.
64. Saidbaev, op. cit. p. 189.
65. Ashirov, Islam i natsional*nye, p. 35.
66. Both quoted in Arab Report, 20 1979, 6–7.
67. CC CPSU Resolution “On the Work of the Communist Party of Turkmenia”, May 16,1962, pp. 775–776, Ocherki Istorii Kommunisticheskoi Partii Turk• menistana, Ashkhabad, Institut Istorii Partii, 2nd enl. ed. (Ashkhabad, Izd. •Turkmenistan”, 1965).
68. Saidbaev, op. cit. p. 192.
69. Tolstov, op. cit. V. I, pp. 95–96, 490, 663; V. II, pp. 117–119, 179–182, 79–80.
70. Abramzon, op. cit., p. 271.
71. S. M. Demidov, Sufizm v Turkmenii (Ashkhabad, “Ylym”, 1978).
72. See the dassic study by Rupert Emerson, From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-Assertion of Asian and African Peoples (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1960).
73. Saidbaev, op. cit. p. 193.’
74. Discussion in this and the following paragraph is based on Saidbaev, op. cit., pp. 193–204. •
75. Scholars criticized (ibid., p. 195 provides references to bibliography) include: Uzbeks: I. M. Dzhabarov and P. N. Nishanov; Azerbaijani: M. M. Safarov; Tatar: K. Faseev; B. Tsavkilov (Baku), L. A. Bashirov, M. Kh. Katicheva (Moscow).
76. Confirmed also in the observed behaviour of the intelligentsia by Ashirov, Islam i natsiona Vnye., p. 37.
77. Saidbaev, op. dt., p. 199. It is not specified whether the families referred to were Muslim-Muslim, Muslim-European, or both.
78. This indudes works of Ashirov and others quoted here.
79. Rasma Karklins, Nationality Power in Soviet Republics; Final Report to National Council for Soviet and East European Research (N.D.) (forth-coming in Survey), pp. 7,11 and passim.
80. See M. Mobin Shorish, #*Who Shall be Educated: Selection and Integration in Soviet Central Asia”, pp. 86–99, Edward Allworth, ed., The Nationality Question in Soviet Central Asia (New York, Praeger, 1973).
81. Calculated on the basis of data in Narodnoe Khoziaistvo SSSR v 1970 g. (Moscow, “Statistika”, 1971), p. 658.
82. Narodnoe Khoziaistvo SSSR v 1972 g. (Moscow, “Statistika”, 1973), p. 651. No ethnic data were released after 1972.
83. K. Akmuradov, “Izmenenie sotsia Tno-klasovoi struktury obshchestva v Turkmenistane”, pp. 160–177, Velikii Oktiabr, pp. 170, 172.
84. Feshbach (“The Soviet Union; Population Trends, p. 12) reports for the early 80s that “the leadership has been increasing investment in light industry in Central Asia”.
85. See, for example, proceedings of a conference on developments in state and law in Central Asia and Kazakhstan held in Alma-Ata in May, 1974, Voprosy natsional’no-gosudarstvennogo stroite Vstva v Srednei Azii i Kazakhstane, AN Kazakhskoi SSR (Alma-Ata, Izd. “Nauka”, 1977).
86. See Allen Hetmanek, “National Renascence in Soviet Kazakhstan: The Brezhnev Era”, pp. 295–305, and James Critchlow “Nationalism in Uzbeki-stan in the Brezhnev Era”, pp. 306–315, in George W. Simmonds, ed., Nationalism in the USSR and Eastern Europe in the Era of Brezhnev & Kosygin (Detroit, University of Detroit Press, 1977).
87. Saidbaev, op. cit., p. 195.
88. T. K. Rarymshakov, “K voprosu o razvitii i sblizhenii iazykovoi zhizni sovetskikh sotsialisticheskikh natsii”, pp. 11–28, Natsiia i natsiona Vnye otnosheniia, pp. 25–27.
89. Sotsialistik Qazaqstan, June 19, 1979, quoted in John Soper, “Kazak Scholar on Teaching the Arabic Script”, RL Turkic Department Program Backgrounder, 1/8/79.
90. For a discussion of the various aspects of mirasism, see E. Allworth, op. cit. passim; Alexandre Bennigsen, “The Crisis of The Turkic National Epics, 1951-1952: Local Nationalism or Proletarian Internationalism?”, pp. 463–474, and E. Allworth, “Mainstay or Mirror of Identity — The Printed Word in Central Asia and Other Soviet Regions Today”, pp. 436–462, in “Russian and Soviet Central Asia”, Canadian Slavonic Papers, V. XVTI, 2 & 3, 1975; Hetmanek and Critchlow in Simmonds, op. cit., and William Fierman, Uzbek Feelings of Ethnicity: A Study of Attitudes Expressed in Recent Uzbek Literature (prepared for the Department of State as part of its external research program; N.D.).
91. See Karklins, Nationality Power
92. See James Critchlow, “Uzbeks and Russians”, pp. 366–373, Canadian Slavonic Papers, op. cit., pp. 371–372
93. See Karklins, Nationality Power”… and Michael Rywkin, “Religion, Modern Nationalism and Political Power in Soviet Central Asia”, pp. 271–285, Canadian Slavonic Papers, op. cit.
94. David C. Montgomery, “The Uzbeks in Two States: Soviet and Afghan Polides Toward an Ethnic Minority”, pp. 147–173, in Wm. O. McCagg and B. D. Silver, eds., Soviet Asian Ethnic Frontiers (New York, Pergamon Press, 1979), p. 158.
95. RFE/RL, Soviet Area Audience and Opinion Research, Background Report 20–79, “Notes on Life in Uzbekistan”, October 26, 1979, p. 3.
96. Karklins, Islam. •, p. 10 and Karklins, Nationality Power, pp. 10, 23, and passim.
97. Quoted by James Critchlow, “Minarets and Marx”, pp. 47–57, The Washington Quarterly, V. 3, No. 2 (Spring 1980), p. 53.
98. Karklins, Nationality Power. ♦., p. 26.
99. RFE/RL, Soviet Area Audience and Opinion Research, Background Report 19–79, “Crime and Corruption in Uzbekistan”, October 26, 1979.
100. See Montgomery, op. cit. pp. 158–159, and this author’s Russia, pp. 16,179-180.
101. G. Zinovev, quoted in Helene Carrere-d’Encausse and Stuart R. Schram, Marxism and Asia: An Introduction with Readings (London, Allen Lane ' The Penguin Press, 1969), p. 172.
102. For Soviet perceptions of Third World countries and their typology, see Mohammed Heikal, The Sphinx and the Commissar: The Rise and Fall of Soviet Influence in the Middle East (New York, Harper &: Row Pub-lishers, 1978).
103. For a full treatment of the theme see my “Central Asia as the Model for the Third World” in Yaacov Ro' i, ed. The Soviet Union and the Muslim World, to be published by George Allen & Unwin in 1983.
104. Devendra Kaushik, Socialism in Central Asia: A Study in the Transformation of Socio-Ethnic Relations in Soviet Centra Asia (Bombay, Allied Publishers Private Limited, 1976), pp.-153 and 159.
105. Rh. S. Shukurova, “Znachenie ku Ttumykh sviazei Uzbekistana z zarub-ezhnymi stranami v intematsional’nom vospitanii tru diash trudiashchikhsia” khsia”, pp. 224–229, and K. S. Sadykov “Ukrepliat’ druzhbu sovetskikh narodov”, pp. 167–172, in Bratstvo narodov
106. Information from Ann Sheehy.
107. Muslims of the Soviet East, No. 4 (44) 1979, pp. 4–5.
108. Neue Zurcher Zeitung, September 18, 1980.
109. Kemal H. Karpat, “The Turkic Nationalities: Turkish-Soviet and Turkish-Chinese Relations”, pp. 117–146, in MrCagg and Silver, eds., op. cit.
110. Personal communication from M. Mobin Shorish and Eden Naby. See also Critchlow, in Washington Quarterly, op. cit., p. 54.
111. Karpat, op. cit.
112. Allen Hetmanek, “Spillover Effects of Religious Broadcasts in Iran on Soviet Muslims”, RFE/RL, Radio Liberty Research, RL 142/80, April 14,1980.
113. Bennigsen and Lemercier-Quelquejay, Official Islam, p. 157.
114. Ashirov (Islam i natsii, pp. 116 and 129), complains about distortions of the Soviet Muslim “reality” that appeared in foreign Muslim journals, such as the organ of the World Muslim Congress, The Muslim World, and others, published in Morocco and Saudi Arabia, and even accuses the former of efforts to subvert Soviet Muslims.
115. A. Vakhabov, “Falshivyi Plach”, Pravda, July 14,'1980, p. 3. (Italics mine).
116. Karklins, The Interrelationship of Soviet Foreign and Nationality Policies…, op. cit.
117. Victor Louis, The Coming Decline of the Chinese Empire, With a Dissenting Introduction by Harrison E. Salisbury (New York, Times Books, 1979), pp. 180–181.
118. See works by Mikhail Agursky, John B. Dunlop, Dimitri Pospelovsky, Alexander Yanov and others.
119. See this author's “The Nationalities Question”, pp. 129–153 in Robert Wesson, ed., The Soviet Union: Looking to the 1980's (Stanford, Hoover Institution Press and Millwood, N.Y., Kraus International Publications,1979).