Hitler's millennial Reich: Apocalyptic belief and the search for salvation

Hitler's Millennial Reich: Apocalyptic Belief and the Search for Salvation

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1-260

  Redles, David ^a,b  

^a Cuyahoga Community College   (United States)

^b BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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References (631)

1. Susan Naquin, Millenarian Rebellionin China: The Eight Trigrams Uprising of 1813 (New Haven: Yale UniversityPress, 1976), 111-17.
2. Michael Adas, Prophets of Rebellion: MillenarianProtest Movements against the European Colonial Order (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979).
3. Hue-Tam Ho Tai, Millenarianism and Peasant Politicsin Vietnam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
4. Thomas Flanagan, "The Third Reich: Origins of a Millenarian Symbol," History of European Ideas 8 (1987): 283-95.
5. George Shepperson, "The Comparative Study of Millenarian Movements," in Sylvia L. Thrupp, ed., Millenarian Dreams in Action: Essays in ComparativeStudies (The Hague: Mouton, 1962), 44.
6. As Walter Schmithals noted in The Apocalyptic Movement, Introductionand Interpretation (Nashville: Abingdon, 1975), 104
7. George E. Atwood, "On the Origins and Dynamics of Messianic SalvationFantasies," International Review of Psycho-Analysis 5 (1978): 85.
8. John Weir Perry, The Far Side of Madness (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1974), 20, 96.
9. I have taken the term "nondirected thinking" from C. G. Jung, "TwoKinds of Thinking," The Collected Works of C. G. Jung (New York: PantheonBooks, 1953-71), vol. 5, para. 4-46.
10. Anna Seidel, "Image of the Perfect Ruler in Early Taoist Messianism: Lao-tzu and Li Hung," History of Religions 9 (1969-70): 216-47.
11. These "Forcers of the End" are discussed in Gershom Scholem, The MessianicIdea in Judaism and Other Essays in Jewish Spirituality (New York: Schocken, 1971), 56-57.
12. "Heaven's Gateand the Induced Apocalypse," Clio's Psyche 4 (1997): 1-5.
13. Michael Barkun, ed., Millennialism and Violence: Historical Cases (Portland: F. Cass, 1996).
14. DeLillo's main character in White Noise (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998)
15. Hermann Rauschning, The Revolution of Nihilism: Warning to the West (New York: Alliance, 1939).
16. George L. Mosse, The Crisis of GermanIdeology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964);
17. Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of GermanIdeology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961);
18. RoderickStackelberg, Idealism Debased: From Völkish Ideology to National Socialism (Kent: Kent State University Press, 1981).
19. Jost Hermand, Old Dreams of a NewReich: Volkish Utopias and National Socialism (Bloomington: Indiana Univer-sity Press, 1992)
20. Klaus Vondung, The Apocalypse in Germany, trans. Stephen D. Ricks (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2000).
21. Robert Pois, National Socialism and the Religion of Nature (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986).
22. Friedrich Heer, Der Glaube des Adolf Hitler: Anatomie einer politischenReligiosität (Munich: Bechtle, 1968)
23. Josef Ackerman, Heinrich Himmlerals Ideologe (Göttingen: Musterschmidt, 1970)
24. J. P. Stern, Hitler: The Führer and the People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975)
25. Manfred Ach and Clemens Pentrop, Hitlers "Religion" (Munich: Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Religions-und Weltanschauungsfragen, 1977)
26. Uriel Tal, in his published lecture "PoliticalFaith" of Nazism Prior to the Holocaust (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1978)
27. Richard Steigmann-Gall, in The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptionsof Christianity, 1919-1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003)
28. George L. Mosse, The Nationalizationof the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany fromthe NapoleonicWars through the Third Reich (New York: H. Fertig, 1975)
29. Hans-Jochen Gamm, Der braune Kult: das Dritte Reich und seine Ersatzreligion (Hamburg: Rütten&Loening, 1962)
30. Klaus Vondung, Magie und Manipulation: ideologischerKult und politische Religion des Nationalsozialismus (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck& Ruprecht, 1971)
31. Sabine Behrenbeck, Der Kult um die toten Helden: Nationalsozialistische Mythen, Riten und Symbole (Vierow: SH-Verlag, 1996).
32. Peter Viereck, Metapolitics: The Roots of the Nazi Mind (New York: Capricorn Books, 1965)
33. Eric Voegelin, Hitler and the Germans (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999)
34. Modernity without Restraint (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2000)
35. Hans-ChristofKraus, "Eric Voegelin redivivius? Politische Wissenschaft als politische Theologie," in Der Nationalsozialismus als politische Religion, ed. Michael Ley andJulius H. Schoeps (Bodenheim b. Mainz: Philo Verlagsgesellschaft, 1997), 74-88.
36. Morris Berman Coming to Our Senses: Body and Spirit in the Hidden History of the West (NewYork: Simon & Schuster, 1989), esp. 253-93.
37. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, "The Modern Mythology of Nazi Occultism," appendixE, 217-25
38. Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism (NewYork: New York University Press, 1992).
39. René Freund, Braune Magie?: Okkultismus, NewAge und Nationalsozialismus (Vienna: Picus, 1995).
40. Jackson Spielvogel and David Redles, "Hitler's Racial Ideology: Content and Occult Sources," SimonWiensenthal Center Annual 3 (1986): 227-46.
41. Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium (New York: Secker & Warburg, 1957).
42. James Rhodes, The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1980).
43. Jean-PierreSironneau, Sécularisation et religions politiques (New York: Mouton, 1982), esp. 262-354
44. Robert Ellwood, buildingprimarily on the work of Rhodes, presents an interesting analysis of Nazi millennialismin "Nazism as a Millennialist Movement," in Wessinger, ed., Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence, 241-60.
45. Robert Wistrich, Hitler's Apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi Legacy (NewYork: St. Martin's Press, 1985).
46. Richard Landes, "On Owls, Roosters, and Apocalyptic Time: A Historical Method for Reading a Refractory Documentation," Union SeminaryQuarterly Review 49 (1996): 165-85.
47. Michael Ley, Genozid und Heilserwartung: zum nationalsozialistischenMord am europäischen Jundentum (Vienna: Picus, 1993)
48. Apokalypse und Moderne: Aufsätze zu politischen Religionen (Vienna: Sonderzal, 1997)
49. Claus-Ekkehard Bärsch's study of Goebbels'smessianism, Erlösung und Vernichtung: Dr. phil. Joseph Goebbels: zur Psycheund Ideologie eines jungen Nationalsozialisten 1923-1927 (Munich: Boer, 1987)
50. Den Schriften von Dietrich Eckart, JosephGoebbels, Alfred Rosenberg und Adolf Hitler (Munich: W. Fink, 1998). Anotherimportant collection of essays along these lines is Ley and Schoeps, eds., Der Nationalsozialismusals politische Religion.
51. Arthur P. Mendel's Vision and Violence (Ann Arbor: University ofMichigan Press, 1992)
52. Michael Bakunin: Roots of Apocalypse (New York: Praeger, 1981).
53. David G. Rowley, Millenarian Bolshevism, 1900 to 1920 (New York: Garland, 1987).
54. Detlev J. K. Peukert, The Weimar Republic: The Crisis of Classical Modernity, trans. Richard Deveson (New York: Hill & Wang, 1993)
55. Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Modernisierungstheorie und Geschichte (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1975)
56. Gerald Feldman, "The Weimar Republic: A Problem of Modernization?" Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 26 (1986): 1-26.
57. The best general history of Weimar Germany is Eberhard Kolb, TheWeimar Republic, trans. P. S. Falla (New York: Routledge, 1988).
58. A. J. Nicholls, Weimar and the Rise of Hitler, 3rd ed. (New York: St. Martin'sPress, 1991)
59. Helmut Heiber, The Weimar Republic, trans. W. E. Yuill (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993)
60. Hagen Schulze, Weimar: Deutschland 1917-1933 (Berlin: Severinund Siedler, 1982).
61. Abel for his book Why Hitler Came to Power (New York: Harvard University Press, 1938).
62. DAGS, vol. 1
63. Adam Nickel, 1. The generally poor view of the so-calledsystem (the Weimar Republic)
64. DAGS, vol. 1, August Reise, 1.
65. DAGS, vol. 2, Hans Neff, 1.
66. DAGS, vol. 3, Friedrich Heinrich Schott, 1. The "stab-in-the-back" (Dolchstoss)
67. DAGS, vol. 2, Hans Otto, 3-4.
68. DAGS, vol. 1, Heinrich Völker, 1.
69. DAGS, vol. 4, Hans Haster, 4.
70. DAGS, vol. 2, Wilhelm Schuchman, 2.
71. DAGS, vol. 1
72. Paul Bierwirth, 2
73. Karl Schmidt, 2; vol. 2
74. Hans Neff, 1
75. Hermann Möser, 1.
76. DAGS, vol. 1, Roman Pornschlegel, 1-2.
77. DAGS, vol. 2, Jakob Buscher, 42.
78. DAGS, vol. 3, Walter Gerwein, 1.
79. DAGS, vol. 2, Hans Otto, 4.
80. DAGS, vol. 4, Heinrich Wick, 1.
81. DAGS, vol. 2, Ludwig Nöll, 2;
82. Gustav Bonn, 3
83. Dr. Daum, 1
84. Heinersdorf and Kötter are quoted in Jay W. Baird, To Die for Germany: Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 26
85. Jackson J. Spielvogel, Hitler and Nazi Germany: A History (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005), 16.
86. DAGS, vol. 1, Heinrich Wilkenlon, 1.
87. DAGS, vol. 2, Willi Martin, 14; vol. 3, Werner Goerendt, 2-3.
88. vol. 3, Werner Goerendt, 2-3.
89. Klaus Thewleit, Male Fantasies, trans., Stephen Conway et al., 2 vols. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987-89).
90. Peukert, Weimar, part 4, "Deceptive Stability," 193-246, esp. chapter 11, "The Illusion of Domestic Stability," 209-21.
91. Heinrich August Winkler, Der Schein der Normalität: Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung in der Weimarer Republik, 1924 bis 1930 (Berlin: J. H. W. Dietz, 1985)
92. Nicholls, Weimar, chapter 9, "The Semblance of Stability: 1924-1929," 105-19.
93. Ernst Günther Gründel, Der Sendung der jungen Generation: Versuch einer umfassendenrevolutionären Sinndeutung der Krise (Munich: Beck, 1932).
94. Klaus Vondung, "ApokalyptischeErwartung: Zur Jungendrevolte in der deutschen Literatur zwischen 1910 und 1930," in Thomas Koebner et al., "Mit uns zieht die neue Zeit": DerMythos Jugend (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1985), 519-44.
95. Peukert, Weimar, 95-101.
96. A rejection and a fear reflected in the near-obsession of male Weimar artists with depicting the violated female corpse. See Maria Tatar, Lustmord:Sexual Murder in Weimar Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
97. DAGS, vol. 3, Emil Hofmann, 1-2.
98. As Eberhard Kolb described the tensions, in Weimar, 84.
99. Wilhelm Hausenstein, "Die Kunst in diesem Augenblick," Die neue Merkur (1919-20), as found in Anton Kaes, Martin Jay, and Edward Dimendberg, eds., The Weimar Republic Sourcebook (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 480. This is a highly useful collection of primary sources. Though not the intention of the editors, the material collected here, while only a fraction of that available, clearly reflects the prevalence of the contemporary apocalyptic interpretation of the rapid and radical change of Weimar culture.
100. Quoted in Peukert, Weimar, 168.
101. Paul Schultze-Naumberg, Kunst und Rasse, 2nd ed. (Munich: J. F. Lehmanns, 1935), 104, 119.
102. The Hitler quotation is found in Otto Wagener, Hitler: Memoirs of a Confidant, ed. Henry Ashby Turner, Jr., trans. Ruth Hein (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 309.
103. Alice Gerstel, "Jazzband," Die Aktion 12 (February 4, 1922): 90-91, as found in Kaes et al., Weimar Sourcebook, 554.
104. Ivan Goll, "Die Neger erobern Europa," Die literarische Welt 2 (January 15, 1926): 3-4, as found in Kaes et al., Weimar Sourcebook, 559-60.
105. Discussed in Reinhard Klooss and Thomas Reuter, Körperbilder: Menschenornamente in Revuetheater und Revuefilm (Frankfurt am Main: Syndikat, 1980). The same might be said of modern dance during Weimar. The mix of modern music, especially jazz, and scantily clad dancers, moving in "primitivistic" and "sexual" gyrations, appeared in the eyes of many to reflect not only an unwelcome imposition of American and black culture into a pure German culture but also the moral decay of society in general.
106. See Valerie Preston-Dunlop and Susanne Lahusen, eds., Schrifttanz: A View of German Dance in the Weimar Republic (London: Pennington, 1990);
107. Susan A. Manning, Ecstasy and the Demon: Feminism and Nationalism in the Dances of Mary Wigman (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1993).
108. Erich Kästner, "Kabarett der Namenlosen," Magdeburger General-Anzeiger (April 7, 1920), as found in Kaes et al., Weimar Sourcebook, 562.
109. DAGS, vol. 3, Robert Rohde, 2.
110. Joseph Goebbels, "Rund um die Gedächtsniskirche," Der Angriff: Aufsätze aus der Kampfzeit (Munich: Eher, 1939), 338-40. The "Piscator" mentioned here is Erwin Piscator, who created multimedia political theater on topical issues like abortion, juvenile delinquency, and judicial bias.
111. See David Bathrick, "Closing the Gaps: Erwin Piscator's Theater of the Spectacle," Journal of Communication Inquiry, 13 (1989): 70-79.
112. DAGS, vol. 3, Georg Heinzebecker, 2.
113. DAGS, vol. 2, Hans Neff, 1.
114. Peukert, Weimar, 66.
115. DAGS, vol. 3, Wilhelm Scherer, 5.
116. DAGS, vol. 2, Gustav Bonn, 1; Albert Barnscheidt, 3.
117. Gregor Strasser, "Gedanken über Aufgaben der Zukunft," originally NSBriefe, June 15, 1926, here as found in his Kampf um Deutschland: Reden und Aufsätze eines Nationalsozialisten (Munich: Eher, 1932), 137. Strasser, as with a number of the Berlin Nazis, interpreted the "socialism" of National Socialism in a more traditional economic way than Hitler ever intended. For Hitler, socialism meant a racial communalism of a millennial sort. Strasser was later killed in the infamous "Night of the Long Knives," accused of plotting a second revolution.
118. Adolf Hitler, Ein Jahr Nationalsozialismus in Deutschland: Rede des Reichskanzlers Adolf Hitler vor dem Reichstag am 30. Januar 1934 (Berlin: Liebheit & Thiessen, 1934), 5-6.
119. Édouard Calic, Secret Conversations with Hitler: Two Newly Discovered 1931 Interviews, trans. Richard Barry (New York: John Day, 1971), 21.
120. Alfred Rosenberg, Der völkischer Staatsgedanke: Untergang und Neugeburt (Munich: Eher, 1924), 3, 21-34.
121. DAGS, vol. 2, Jakob Hoffmann, 1.
122. DAGS, vol. 2, Wilhelm Scherer, 12.
123. DAGS, vol. 3, Heinrich Maxeiner, 10.
124. Quoted in Otto Wagener, Hitler: Memoirs of a Confidant, ed. Henry Ashby Turner, Jr., trans. Ruth Hein (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 44-45. This important source is discussed in the appendix.
125. Quoted in Hermann Rauschning, The Voice of Destruction (New York:Putnam, 1940), 80.
126. On Wagner's notion of regeneration and redemption through annihilation see the work of Helmut Zelinsky, especially "Die 'feuerkur' des Richard Wagner oder die 'neue religion' der 'Erlösung' durch 'Vernichtung,'" in Heinz-Klaus Metzger and Rainer Riehen, eds., Richard Wagner: Wie antisemitisch darf ein Künstler sein? (Munich: Edition + Text, 1981): 79-112;
127. "Der 'Plenipotentarius des Untergangs,'" Neohelicon 9 (1982): 145-76;
128. "Verfall, Vernichtung, Wel- tentrückung: Richard Wagner's antisemitische Werk-Idee als Kunstreligion und Zivilisationskritik und ihre Verbreitung bis 1933," in Saul Friedländer and Jörn Rüsen, eds., Richard Wagner im Dritten Reich: ein Schloss Elmau-Symposion (Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck, 2000), 309-41.
129. Also instructive is Paul Lawrence Rose, "Wagner, Hitler und historische Prophetie: Der geschichtliche Kontext von 'Untergang', 'Vernichtung' und 'Ausrottung,' in Friedländer and Rüsen, 283-308.
130. DAGS, vol. 3, Jakob Heist, 2.
131. DAGS, vol. 1, Paul Bierwirth, 2.
132. DAGS, vol. 2, Robert Mayer, 1.
133. After achieving power, the Nazis would continue to use pageantry to stimulate the rebirth of the millennial community. See Robert A. Pois, "The National Socialist Volksgemeinschaft Fantasy and the Drama of National Rebirth," in Glen W. Gadberry, ed., Theatre in the Third Reich, the Prewar Years: Essays on Theatre in Nazi Germany (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995):17-32.
134. Quotations found in James Rhodes, The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1980), 59.
135. Rosenberg, Der völkischer Staatsgedanke, 21.
136. Quoted in Rhodes, The Hitler Movement, 59.
137. DAGS, vol. 1, Karl Hepp, 2.
138. Theodore Abel, Why Hitler Came to Power (New York: Harvard University Press, 1938), 179, 244.
139. DAGS, vol. 1, Willi Altenbrandt, 18.
140. DAGS, vol. 1, Johannes Zehfuss, 6.
141. Quoted in Josef Wulf, Literatur und Dichtung im Dritten Reich: Eine Dokumentation (Gutersich: Sigbert Mohn, 1963), 55.
142. DAGS, vol. 3, August Eckart, 1.
143. Similarly, see DAGS, vol. 1, Johann Uhrig, 1; vol. 3, Wilhelm Kumpf, 1; vol. 3, Heinrich Wider, 1.
144. DAGS, vol. 1, Friedrich Neuber, 1-2.
145. DAGS, vol. 3, Philipp Balthaser Ripper zu Pfaffen-Beerfurth, 1.
146. DAGS, vol. 2, Georg Schorbach, 5-6.
147. The most complete work on the Thule Society is Hermann Gilbhard, Die Thule Gesellschaft: Vom okkulten Mummenschanz zum Hakenkreuz (Munich:Kiessling 1994). The word "Thule" refers to the mythical northern homeland of the ancient Aryans that, like Atlantis, sank into the sea. The Aryans then purportedly migrated around the Eurasia continent, creating wondrous civilizations from India to Greece to Rome to Germanic Europe. For many volkish and occult thinkers, Thule came to represent both an ideal past where Aryans, perfect in body and soul, ruled a Golden Age and a ideal future, a New Age that would see a resurrection of the Aryan god-men of old.
148. See the essay by Jost Hermand, "Ultima Thule: Völkische und faschistische Zukunftsvisionen," in his collection Orte, irgendwo: Formen utopischen Denkens (Königstein: Athenäum, 1981), 61-86.
149. By far the best work on the ariosophists is Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism (New York: New York University Press, 1992).
150. On the fusion of Social Darwinism and occultism see Helmut Zander, "Sozialdarwinistische Rassentheorie aus dem okkulten Untergrund des Kaiserreich," in Uwe Puschner et al., eds., Handbuch zur 'Völkisch Bewegung' 1871-1918 (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1996): 224-51.
151. On the Germanenorden see Reginal H. Phelps, "'Before Hitler Came':Thule Society and Germanen Orden," Journal of Modern History 25 (1963):245-61.
152. For brief accounts on Fritsch see Reginal H. Phelps, "Theodor Fritsch und der Antisemitismus," Deutsche Rundschau 87 (1961): 442-49
153. Goodrick-Clarke, Occult Roots of Nazism, 123-28.
154. On the Hammer movement see Michael Bönisch, "Die 'Hammer' Bewegung,' in Puschner et al, Handbuch zum 'Völkisch Bewegung,' 341-65.
155. Quoted in Goodrick-Clarke, Occult Roots of Nazism, 145.
156. Gottfried zur Beek, ed., Die Geheimnesse der Weisen von Zion (Charlottenberg:Verlag "Auf Vorposten," 1919). Beek/Müller had received a copy of the Protocols from Fyodor Vinberg, a Russian refugee who also published a Russian version of the work in Luch Sveta (Ray of Light), a yearbook that presented the combat against the Jewish Elders as a religious mission. According to Vinberg, if the Germans and Russians joined together to defeat the Jews, there would be peace on earth.
157. For more on this and other aspects of the Protocols see Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy and Protocols of the Elders of Zion (London: Serif, 1996).
158. On some of the modern uses of this pernicious forgery see Dina Porat, "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: New Uses of an Old Myth," in Robert S. Wistrich, ed., Demonizing the Other (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic, 1999), 322-34. This is a useful collection for understanding the construction of Jews as an Evil Other in its multifarious expressions.
159. Maurice Joly, Dialogue aux enfers entre Machiavel et Montesquieu ou La politique de Machiavel au XIXe siècle, par un contemporain (Brussels: A. Mertens, 1864). Gödische's book, written under the name Sir John Retcliffe the Younger, was titled Biarittz (Berlin: C. S. Liebrecht, 1868).
160. Quotations from The Rabbi's Speech as found in appendix 1 of Cohn, Warrant for Genocide, 279-84.
161. Quoted in Claus Ekkehard-Bärsch, "Der Jude als Antichrist in der NSIdeologie," Zeitschrift für Religions und Geistesgeschichte 47 (1995): 171.
162. Quoted in Cohn, Warrant for Genocide, 216-17.
163. Quoted in Ekkehard-Bärsch, "Der Jude als Antichrist," 166.
164. For an analysis of Hitler's early speeches and their indebtedness to the Protocols, see Günter Schubert, Anfänge nationalsozialistischer Außenpolitik (Köln: Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, 1963), esp. 27ff.
165. Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitlers Reden, ed. Ernst Boepple (Munich: Deutscher Volksverlag, 1925), 71. Interestingly, Sergi Nilius earlier had interpreted the Jewish star as the sign of the anti-Christ.
166. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1971), 307-8.
167. Dietrich Eckart, Der Bolschewismus von Moses bis Lenin. Zwiegespräch zwischen Adolf Hitler und mir (Munich: Hoheneichen-Verlag, 1924). Hereafter cited as Eckart, BML. For the sake of clarity, I will ascribe quotations from BML to Eckart and Hitler respectively, although they should be understood, as with other examples of what I call the Hitler gospels, as Eckart's rendering of Hitler's sentiments as expressed in many conversations and discussions.
168. On more background on Eckart see Margarete Plewnia, Auf dem Weg zu Hitler: Der völkische Publizist Dietrich Eckart (Bremen: Schünemann, 1970)
169. Ralph Max Engelman, "Dietrich Eckart and the Genesis of Nazism," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1971.
170. Hitler later said of Eckart, "He shone in our eyes like the polar star. . . . At the time, I was intellectually a child still on the bottle."
171. Adolf Hitler, Hitler's Secret Conversations, 1941-1944, trans. Norman Cameron and R. H. Stevens (New York: Signet, 1961), 222.
172. This propaganda technique built on the work of Alfred Rosenberg, who in the pages of Eckart's Auf Gut Deutsch and in his Die Spur des Juden im Wandel der Zeiten (Munich: Deutscher Volksverlag, 1920) attempted to fuse the Talmud and the notorious forgery The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in order to "expose" the Jews. This tendency to use Jewish sources to "reveal" their true nature continued after the Nazis assumed power. Discussed by Paul Lawrence Rose in "Talmudic Scholarship in the Stab-Rosenberg's Institute for Research into the Jewish Question," paper delivered at the 113th annual meeting of the American Historical Association, Washington, D.C., January 7-10, 1999.
173. Eckart, BML, 7-8.
174. Eckart, BML, 30. The massacre of the innocents in the Children's Crusade is likewise transformed into a Jewish-designed massacre, rather than a Turkish victory. It also conveniently ignores the thousands of Jews killed by millennially obsessed crusaders.
175. Eckart, BML, 49-50.
176. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 64, 313, 452.
177. Adolf Hitler, Hitler's Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf, trans. Krista Smith (New York: Enigma Books, 2003), 231. For a detailed discussion of the origins of this book and why it was not published earlier, see the introduction by the book's editor, Gerhard L. Weinberg.
178. Otto Wagener, Hitler: Memoirs of a Confidant, 64-65.
179. On the Nazi idea of Jews as parasites see Alexander Bein, "'Der Jüdische Parasit,' Bemerkungen zur Semantik der Judenfrage," Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitsgeschichte 2 (1963):121-49.
180. On animalization in general see Philippe Burrin, "Nazi Antisemitism:Animalization and Demonization," in Wistrich, Demonizing the Other, 223-35.
181. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 533.
182. DAGS, vol. 3, Wilhelm Scherer, 12.
183. NSDAP Hauptarchiv, Hoover Institution microfilm, roll #4, folder #107
184. Vogel, "Was Ist und Was Will die Hitlerbewegung" (1931), 4.
185. Calic, Secret Conversations with Hitler, 68.
186. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 338-39.
187. Adolf Hitler, Die Rede Adolf Hitlers in der ersten grossen Massenversammlung bei Wiederausrichtung der Nationalsozialistischen Deutschen Arbeiter Partei (Munich: Ehrer, 1925), 8.
188. Louis L. Snyder, Hitler's Third Reich: A Documentary History (Chicago:Nelson-Hall, 1981), 51-52.
189. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 324. This is in line with the thinking expressed in Eckart's Bolshevism from Moses to Lenin, which again validates the usefulness of this source.
190. Quoted in Ekkehard-Bärsch, "Der Jude als Antichrist," 172.
191. As found in Leon Poliakov and Josef Wulf, eds., Das Dritte Reich und die Juden: Dokumente und Aufsätze (Berlin: Arani, 1955), 91-92.
192. DAGS, vol. 4, Paul Schneider, 35.
193. Rauschning, Voice of Destruction, 241.
194. Hitler, Adolf Hitlers Reden, 17.
195. Discussed at length in Wistrich, Hitler's Apocalypse: Jews and the Nazi Legacy (New York: St. Martins Press, 1985), 27-47. This book is essential for understanding the apocalyptic nature of Nazi anti-Semitism, as well as its continuing appeal.
196. Josef Hell, "Wie mich Adolf Hitler über sich belehrte. Und für immer mich von seinem Ich bekehrte," ZS 640, p. 5, Institut für Zeitgeschichte, Munich. I would like to thank the Institute for providing me with a copy of this document.
197. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 214, 397, 497, 214.
198. DAGS, vol. 3, Heinrich Grebe, 2. The Verbotenzeit (forbidden period) refers to the time after the Hitler putsch during which the party was officially banished from Weimar politics.
199. DAGS, vol. 3, Balzer, 2.
200. DAGS, vol. 3, Heinrich Götz, 1.
201. DAGS, vol. 2, Willi Martin, 17.
202. NDSAP Hauptarchiv, roll #4, folder #100, Martin Reihl, 8. Reihl is discussing his company's role in the putsch. Many of the reminiscences in this folder recall the putsch in apocalyptic terms. Again, the construction of a group memory via apocalyptic symbolism applies here.
203. NSDAP Hauptarchiv, roll #4, folder #99. Bavarian State Ministry report on the Nazi party (1922), 5-6.
204. NSDAP Hauptarchiv, roll #4, folder #100. Theodor Schwindel, 4.
205. DAGS, vol. 2, Johannes Christ, 14. As Adam Pfeiffer explained, in regard to spreading the word: "I had the mission to convince the yet still unconverted Volksgenossen of the idea of our revered Führer Adolf Hitler, and to win them for our cause."
206. DAGS, vol. 3, Adam Pfeiffer, 1. The importance of canvassing for the idea of Hitler is taken up in the next chapter.
207. DAGS, vol. 4, Paul Schneider, 36.
208. DAGS, vol. 1, Lange, 1. That this individual experienced the sense of mission as being "seized" by a "holy fire," and that he felt "dragged" with "elemental force to its spell," reveals the profound psychological power of millennial rhetoric for the converted.
209. Quoted in Rauschning, Voice of Destruction, 40.
210. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 107.
211. "Hitler Source Book," (Washington, D.C.: National Archives, Records of the Office of Strategic Services, 1943), RG 226, p. 142.
212. DAGS, vol. 1, Otto Besenbruch, 3.
213. Quoted in Rhodes, The Hitler Movement, 60.
214. Gregor Strasser, Kampf um Deutschland: Reden und Aufsätze eines Nationalsozialisten (Munich: Ehrer, 1932), 139.
215. Quoted in Barbara Miller Lane and Leila J. Rupp, Nazi Ideology before 1933: A Documentation (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978), 110. It was Otto Strasser who most likely brought Moeller van den Bruck's millennial conception of the Third Reich, expressed in his book Das Dritte Reich to the Nazis. Otto Strasser eventually lost faith in the Nazis as the chosen elite and subsequently formed his own group, the Black Front. After his brother Gregor's murder at the hands of Hitler's thugs, Otto emigrated from Germany and became an even more vocal opponent of Hitler.
216. See Karl O. Paetel, "Otto Strasser und 'Schwarze Front' des wahren Nationalsozialismus," Politische Studien, 92 (1957): 269-82.
217. Alfred Rosenberg, Der völkisch Staatsgedanke: Untergang und Neugeburt (Munich: Eher, 1924), 31.
218. Quoted in Ernest K. Bramstead, Goebbels and National Socialist Propaganda, 1925-1945 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1965), 129-30, 163-64.
219. Albert Speer, Spandau: The Secret Diaries, trans. Richard Winston and Clara Winston (London: Collins, 1976), 81-82.
220. Kurt G. W. Lüdecke, I Knew Hitler: The Story of a Nazi Who Escaped the Blood Purge (New York: Scribner, 1937), 128-37; see also 22-23.
221. On the general reliability of Lüdecke's memoirs see Roland V. Layton, "Kurt Lüdecke and I Knew Hitler: An Evaluation," Central European History 12 (1979): 372-86. Hitler reportedly told Rauschning something similar; "Our spirit is so strong, and the power of our magnificent movement to transform souls so elemental, that men are remodeled against their will."
222. Hermann Rauschning, The Voice of Destruction (New York: Putnam, 1940), 131.
223. Otto Wagener, Hitler: Memoirs of a Confidant, ed. Henry Ashby Turner, Jr., trans. Ruth Hein (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 55-57.
224. See his UnderstandingReligious Conversion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 44-55.
225. See also William B. Bankson, H. Hugh Floyd Jr., and Craig J. Forsyth, "Toward a GeneralModel of the Process of Radical Conversion: An Interactionist Perspectiveon the Transformation of Self-Identity," Qualitative Sociology 4 (1981): 279-97.
226. DAGS, vol. 2, Adalbert Gimbel, 2; vol. 1, Otto Leinweber, 1;
227. DAGS, vol. 2, Gustav Bonn, 2; vol. 1, Karl Aldinger, 2-3;
228. DAGS, vol. 1, Emil Schlitz, 1.
229. DAGS, vol. 1, Karl Hepp, 2.
230. John Lofland and Rodney Stark, in "Becoming a World Saver: A Theoryof Conversion to a Deviant Perspective," American Sociological Review 30 (1965): 862-75.
231. Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, 133.
232. Discussed in John Lofland and Norman Skonovd, "Conversion Motifs," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 20 (1981): 373-85.
233. DAGS, vol. 3, Johannes Zehfuss, 1;
234. Georg Konrad Klinger, 2-3;
235. Heinrich Maxeiner, 1;
236. Wilhelm Reuter, 2;
237. Walter Gerwien, 1-2;
238. Emil Hofmann, 2.
239. DAGS, vol. 3, Otto Glas, 1.
240. DAGS, vol. 3, Wilhelm Fleck, 5.
241. DAGS, vol. 4, L. Eifert, 11.
242. DAGS, vol. 1, Josef Schimmel, 2.
243. DAGS, vol. 4, Paul Schneider, 14.
244. DAGS, vol. 2, Johannes Christ, 3.
245. See also John Lofland, "Becoming a World Saver' Revisited," American Behavioral Scientist 20 (1977): 805-18;
246. Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge, "Networks of Faith: InterpersonalBonds and Recruitment to Cults and Sects," American Journal of Sociology 85 (1980): 1376-95;
247. David A. Snow, Louis A. Zurcher Jr., and SheldonEkland-Olson, "Further Thoughts on Social Networks and Movement Recruitment," Sociology 17 (1983): 112-20.
248. DAGS, vol. 1, Karoline Leinweber, 3.
249. DAGS, vol. 1, Heini Bickendorf, 9.
250. DAGS, vol. 2, Eduard Hohbein, 3.
251. Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, 50-51.
252. See his Christian Conversion: A Developmental Interpretation of Autonomy and Surrender (New York: Paulist Press, 1986)
253. "Pastoral Counseling for Self-Transcendence: The Integrationof Psychology and Theology," Pastoral Psychology 36 (1987): 29-48.
254. DAGS, vol. 3, Ludwig Heck I, 2.
255. DAGS, vol. 3, Peter Weber, 1.
256. DAGS, vol. 4, Franz Madre, 1.
257. Quoted in Theodore Abel, Why Hitler Came to Power (New York: HarvardUniversity Press, 1938), 244.
258. Abel, Why Hitler, 116-17.
259. DAGS, vol. 3, Rudolf Bergmann, 1.
260. DAGS, vol. 1, Hermann Hirth, 2.
261. DAGS, vol. 3, Georg Schönberger, 3.
262. DAGS, vol. 3, Valentin Schwöbel, 6;
263. DAGS, vol. 2, Heinrich Berwig, 1;
264. DAGS, vol. 1, Heini Bickendorf, 8.
265. DAGS, vol. 1, Willi Altenbrandt, 21.
266. Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, 1.
267. DAGS, vol. 3, Wilhelm Scherer, 4.
268. DAGS, vol. 4, Otto Schroeder, 9.
269. DAGS, vol. 1, Otto Besenbruch, 3.
270. Abel, Why Hitler, 117.
271. DAGS, vol. 4, L. Eifert, 3-4.
272. DAGS, vol. 3, Elisabeth Kranz, 26.
273. DAGS, vol. 2, Emil Schneider, 2.
274. DAGS, vol. 2, Johannes Christ, 12.
275. DAGS, vol. 2, Hans Grün, 1.
276. DAGS, vol. 1, Paul Hainbach, 25.
277. DAGS, vol. 4, Heinrich Wick, 2.
278. DAGS, vol. 2, Robert Mayer, 2.
279. DAGS, vol. 1, Dora Sott, 2.
280. See George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of theWorld Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
281. Quoted in Wagener, Memoirs of a Confidant, 212.
282. DAGS, vol. 3, Georg Konrad Klinger, 2.
283. DAGS, vol. 4, Paul Schneider, 2;
284. Abel, Why Hitler, 179, 138.
285. DAGS, vol. 1, Hermann Jung, 25; vol. 4, Franz Madre, 6.
286. DAGS, vol. 3, Elisabeth Kranz, 27.
287. On the infusion of a sense of power after conversion see Rambo, UnderstandingReligious Conversion, 85-86.
288. DAGS, vol. 2, M. Hetzel, 2;
289. DAGS, vol. 2, Karl Dörr, 5.
290. Abel, Why Hitler, 145.
291. DAGS, vol. 1, Heinrich Oesterling, 6;
292. Roman Pornschlegel, 3;
293. Wilhelm Schneider, 2;
294. DAGS, vol. 3, Anne Heilmann, 2.
295. For a discussion of the importance of ritual, pre-and postconversion, see Rambo, Understanding Religious Conversion, 113-18.
296. DAGS, vol. 3, Karl Baumann, 3; vol. 1, Hans Schmidt, 6; vol. 2
297. Johannes Christ, 14-15.
298. DAGS, vol. 3, Emil Sauer, 12.
299. DAGS, vol. 1, Karl Müller, 2; vol. 2, Jakob Tritsch, 4.
300. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston: HoughtonMifflin, 1971), 533.
301. DAGS, vol. 3, Wilhelm Scherer, 12.
302. Rauschning, Voice of Destruction, 290.
303. DAGS, vol. 3, Ludwig Heck I, 2.
304. See DAGS, vol. 2, Fritz Günther Stroh, 2.
305. DAGS, vol. 3, Emil Hofmann, 2.
306. DAGS, vol. 2, Hans Otto, 6.
307. DAGS, vol. 1, Roman Pornschlegel, 4.
308. G. V. Porembsky, 2; vol. 2, Dr. Daum, 2;
309. Karl Carrier, 1;
310. Heinrich Oesterling, 1;
311. Freiherr von Lynker, 2; vol. 3, LudwigHeck I, 3
312. Karl Baumann, 1.
313. Abel, Why Hitler, 118, 146, 142.
314. DAGS, vol. 4, L. Eifert, 11.
315. DAGS, vol. 1, Emil Wiesemann, 1;
316. Hermann Eberhardt, 2.
317. DAGS, vol. 1, Adalbert Gimbel, 3.
318. DAGS, vol. 2, Georg Dingeldein, 3.
319. DAGS, vol. 2, Stroh, 2;
320. Josef Schneider, 3.
321. Abel, Why Hitler, 146.
322. DAGS, vol. 1, Emil Schlitz, 2.
323. DAGS, vol. 2, Adam Schneider, 2.
324. On sacrifice as a form of surrendering see Rambo, Understanding ReligiousConversion, 132-37.
325. DAGS, vol. 1, Mages, 5; vol. 2, Georg Schorbach, 10;
326. Abel, Why Hitler, 278.
327. Quotedin Wagener, Memoirs of a Confidant, 23.
328. Abel, Why Hitler, 278, 293.
329. DAGS, vol. 3, Wilhelm Schnabel, 4.
330. DAGS, vol. 3, Wilhelm Jockel, 3.
331. Quoted in DAGS, vol. 2, Jakob Buscher, 9.
332. DAGS, vol. 1, Julius Stehl, 2-3, 8;
333. Rudolf Manz, 10;
334. Quoted in DAGS, vol. 2, Stroh, 5.
335. DAGS, vol. 1, Ernst Hass, 1.
336. DAGS, vol. 3, Walter Gerwien, 7;
337. DAGS, vol. 3, Walter Gerwien, 7.
338. DAGS, vol. 3, Peter Hartmann I, 2;
339. DAGS, vol. 2, Hans Wagner, 48.
340. DAGS, vol. 2, Georg Weiss, 2.
341. DAGS, vol. 2, Retired Major Strelow, 2.
342. On Hitler's childhood see Bradley F. Smith, Adolf Hitler: His Family, Childhood, and Youth (Stanford: Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, andPeace, 1967);
343. Franz Jetzinger, Hitlers Jugend (Vienna: Europa-Verlag, 1956).
344. Hitler's own version of his childhood, which must be taken as just that, hisversion, part imagined, part historical, can be found in the first chapter of MeinKampf. The quotation here is from Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1971), 17.
345. This episode is discussed in Jetzinger, Hitlers Jugend, 148-51 and Smith, Adolf Hitler, 97-98. A recent psychological and medical analysis of Hitler can befound in Fritz Redlich, Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 17.
346. August Kubizek, The Young Hitler I Knew, trans. E. V. Anderson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1955).
347. See Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 20-21.
348. Brigitte Hamann makes this point as well in Hitler's Vienna (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 52-59.
349. Kubizek, Young Hitler I Knew, 22.
350. Quoted in Charles Bracelen Flood, Hitler, the Path to Power (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), 432.
351. Quoted in Joachim C. Fest, Hitler, trans. Richard Winstonand Clara Winston (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974), 519.
352. As described by John Deathridge in Wagner's Rienzi: A Reappraisal Basedon a Study of the Sketches and Drafts (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 22-23.
353. Quoted in Hamann, Hitler's Vienna, 24.
354. Kubizek, Young Hitler I Knew, 99-100.
355. Otto Wagener, Hitler: Memoirs of a Confidant, ed. Henry Ashby Turner, Jr., trans. Ruth Hein (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 217.
356. Deathridge, Wagner's Rienzi, 2.
357. On his formative teenage years see William Jenks, Vienna and the YoungHitler (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960);
358. Anton Joachimsthaler, Korrektureiner Bibliographie: Adolf Hitler, 1908-1920 (Munich: Herbig, 1989).
359. Discussed in Kubizek, Young Hitler I Knew, 164-65.
360. The cultural contrasts are illustrated in Carl Schorske's classic study Finde-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture (New York: Knopf, 1980). Hamann'sHitler in Vienna is likewise highly illustrative of this culture in transition.
361. Peter Pulzer's The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), is indispensablehere.
362. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 161.
363. On this see Redlich, Hitler, 42-43.
364. R. G. L. Waite, The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler (New York: BasicBooks, 1977), 27.
365. Quoted in Rudolf Binion, Hitler among the Germans (New York: Elsevier, 1976), 136.
366. Ludwell Denny, "France and the German Counter-Revolution," The Nation 116 (February 1923): 295.
367. "Hitler Source Book," (Washington, D.C.: National Archives, Records ofthe Office of Strategic Services, 1943), RG 226, 901.
368. Karl von Wiegand, "Hitler Foresees His End," Cosmopolitan (April 1939), 28, in "Hitler Source Book," 490.
369. Quoted in Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), 109.
370. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 206.
371. Max Domarus, ed., Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, 1932-1945: Kommentiert von einem deutschen Zeitgenossen (Neustadt: a. d. Aisch, Schmidt, 1962), vol. I, 704.
372. Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, 105.
373. Kubizek, Young Hitler I Knew, 140.
374. "Hitler Source Book," 647.
375. Quoted in Heinz A. Heinz, Germany's Hitler (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1934), 103.
376. "Hitler Source Book," 895.
377. George E. Atwood, "On the Origins and Dynamics of Messianic SalvationFantasies," International Review of Psycho-Analysis 5 (1978): 85.
378. For a differenttake on patients with delusions of having been chosen for a messianic missionsee John Weir Perry, The Far Side of Madness (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1974), esp. 20, 96.
379. Further examples of messianic visions obtained during trance states canbe found in B. G. Burton-Bradley, "The New Guinea Prophet: Is the Cultist AlwaysNormal?" Medical Journal of Australia (January 17, 1970): 126;
380. W. W. Meissner, "The Cult Phenomenon: Psychoanalytic Perspective," PsychoanalyticStudy of Society 10 (1984): 91-111;
381. John Weir Perry, "The Messianic Hero," Journal of Analytic Psychology 17 (1972): 192-93;
382. Leon Perez, "The MessianicPsychotic Patient," Israel: Annals of Psychiatry and Related Disciplines 15 (1977): 364;
383. Hue-Tam Ho Tai, Millenarianism and Peasant Politics in Vietnam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 84-85.
384. See P. M. Yap, "The Mental Illness of Hung Hsiu-Ch'uan, Leader of the Taiping Rebellion," Far Eastern Quarterly 13 (November 1953-August 1954): 287-304.
385. TheSeneca prophet Handsome Lake had his visions after a near-death experiencebrought on by extreme alcoholism, discussed in Anthony F. C. Wallace's sociopsychologicalstudy The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York: Vintage, 1972).
386. See Michael Adas, Prophetsof Rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements against the European ColonialOrder (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1979), 109-10.
387. In DAGS, vol. 2, Eduard Hohbein, 6-7.
388. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 346-47.
389. Albrecht Tyrell, Vom "Trommler" zum "Führer": der Wandel von HillersSelbstverständnis Zwischen 1919 u. 1924 u. d. Entwicklung d. NSDAP (Munich: Fink, 1975).
390. Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, largely follows Tyrell for this portionof his biography.
391. Otto Strasser, Hitler and I, trans. Gwenda David and Eric Mosbacher (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1940), 66-67.
392. Eberhard Jäckel and Axel Kuhn, eds., Hitler: Sämtliche Aufzeichnungen 1905-1924 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1980), 924.
393. Quoted in Ian Kershaw, The Hitler Myth: Image and Reality in the ThirdReich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 23.
394. "Hitler Source Book," 901.
395. Quoted in Georg Schott, Das Volksbuch vom Hitler (Munich: HermannA. Wiechmann, 1924), 55.
396. Deutscher Widerstand (Zurich: Rentsch, 1947), 280.
397. Quoted in Helmuth Auerbach, "Hitlers politische Lehrjahre," Vierteljahrsheftefür Zeitgeschichte 25 (1977): 29.
398. Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, 165.
399. David Clay Large, WhereGhosts Walked: Munich's Road to the Third Reich (New York: Norton, 1997).
400. Charles Bracelen Flood, in Hitler, ThePath to Power (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), brings a novelist's skill to theaccurate recreation of a sense of the truly apocalyptic nature of Munich societyafter the war.
401. Joachimsthaler, Korrektur einer Bibliographie, esp. 184, 188, 200-204, 211.
402. "I WasHitler's Boss," Current History 1 (November, 1941): 193.
403. Karl Alexander von Müller, Mars und Venus: Erinnerungen, 1914-1919 (Stuttgart: G. Kilpper, 1954), 338.
404. Hitler, Mein Kampf, 215-16.
405. Cited in Ernst Deuerlein, "Hitlers Eintritt in die Politik und die Reichswehr," Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitsgeschichte 7 (1959): 200.
406. Michael Lotter, "Der Beginn meines politischen Denkens!".
407. Reginald Phelps, "Die Hitler Bibliotek," Deutsche Rundschau 80 (1954): 925.
408. Cited in Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, 182.
409. Quoted in Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, 185..
410. Friedeland Wagner, The Royal Family of Bayreuth (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1948): 8-9.
411. Quoted in Flood, Hitler, 433.
412. Cited in Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, 192-93.
413. Ludwell Denny, "France and the German Counter-Revolution," The Nation 116 (March 14, 1923), 295.
414. Paul Gierasch, "The Bavarian Menace to German Unity," Current HistoryMagazine 223 (1923): 226.
415. From the trial report reproduced in Jäckel and Kuhn, Hitler: Sämtlicheund Aufzeichnungen, 1117.
416. Quoted in Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, 214.
417. Hitler's discussion of this can be found in Jäckel and Kuhn, Hitler: Sämtliche und Aufzeichnungen, 1188.
418. Claus-Ekkehard Bärsch, Der junge Goebbels: Erlösung und Vernichtung (Munich: Boar, 1995).
419. Ernst Hanfstängl, Hitler: The Missing Years (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1957), 83.
420. Quoted in Robert Cecil, Myth of the Master Race: Alfred Rosenberg andNazi Ideology (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1972), 221.
421. "Hitler Source Book," 901. Max Rothe (604) noted similarly that afterthe putsch "he was no longer the 'drummer'... he made himself into the 'comingMan.'"
422. Quoted in Wagener, Memoirs of a Confidant, 170, 172.
423. Baldur von Schirach, Ich Glaubte an Hitler (Hamburg: Mosaik Verlag, 1967), 160.
424. A good source for the messianic devotion of Hitler's inner circle isClaus-Ekkehard Bärsch, Die politische Religion des Nationalsozialismus (Munich: W. Fink, 1998), 136-78.
425. Ludwig Wagner, Hitler: Man of Strife (New York: W. W. Norton, 1942), 320-21.
426. Quoted inCecil, Myth of the Master Race, 41.
427. Quoted in Flood, Hitler, 141.
428. Rudolf Hess, "Wie wird der Mann beschaffen sein, der Deutschlandwieder zur Höhe führt," typescript in NSDAP Hauptarchiv, roll #35, folder #689.
429. Quoted in Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, 165.
430. Letter 342, Rudolf Hess Briefe 1908-1933, ed. Wolf Rüdiger Hess (Munich: Langen Müller, 1987), 338.
431. Discussed in John Toland, Adolf Hitler (New York: Doubleday, 1976), 64, 67-68.
432. According to Ernst Schmidt and Ignaz Westenkirchner, in Heinz A. Heinz, Germany's Hitler (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1934), 67-68, 82, 96.
433. Hans Mend, Adolf Hitler im Felde, 1914-1918 (Munich: J. C. Huber, 1931), 172.
434. Quoted in George Ward Price, I Know These Dictators (London: Harrap, 1937), 39-40.
435. Konrad Heiden, in Adolf Hitler: A Biography (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1936), 319-20.
436. Quoted in Wagener, Memoirs of a Confidant, 174.
437. Quoted in Heinz Assmann, "Some Personal Recollections of AdolfHitler," Proceedings, U.S. Naval Institute 79 (July 1953): 1290-91.
438. Quoted in Felix Kersten, The Kersten Memoirs, 1940-1945 (London: Hutchinson, 1956), 201.
439. Quoted in Hugh Trevor-Roper, Last Days of Hitler (London: Pan Books, 1968), 94.
440. Quoted in Price, I Know These Dictators, 25.
441. Quoted in Heiden, Hitler, 274.
442. Quoted in Price, I Know These Dictators, 119-20.
443. Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (New York: BonanzaBooks, 1982), 357.
444. Walter Schellenberg, The Labyrinth: Memoirs of Walter Schellenberg (New York: Harper, 1956), 93.
445. Hermann Rauschning, The Voice of Destruction (New York: Putnam, 1940), 201.
446. Domarus, Reden und Proklamation, vol. I, 817, 849.
447. Quoted in Wagener, Memoirs of a Confidant, 100.
448. Quoted in Rauschning, Voice of Destruction, 181.
449. Quoted in Wagener, Memoirs of a Confidant, 150-51.
450. Quoted in Wagener, Memoirs of a Confidant, 153.
451. Ulrich Linser, Barfüßige Propheten: Erlöser der zwanziger Jahre (Berlin: Siedler, 1983).
452. Klaus Schreiner, "Messianism in the Political Culture ofthe Weimar Republic," in Peter Schäfer and Mark Cohen, eds., Toward the Millennium: Messianic Expectations from the Bible to Waco (Leiden: Brill, 1998): 311-61.
453. Alfons Heck, A Child of Hitler: Germany in the Days When God Wore aSwastika (Frederick: Renaissance House, 1985), 22.
454. Otto Strasser, Hitler and I, trans. Gwenda David and Eric Mosbacher (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1940), 62-65.
455. Ernst Hanfstängl, "My Leader," Collier's 94 (1934): 7-9.
456. Quoted in Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 187.
457. Kurt G. W. Lüdecke, I Knew Hitler (New York: Scribner, 1937), 22-23.
458. Francis Yeats-Brown, "A Tory Looks at Hitler," Living Age 354 (1938): 512.
459. Walter Schellenberg, The Labyrinth: Memoirs of Walter Schellenberg (NewYork: Harper, 1956), 94-95.
460. Quotedin Charles Bracelen Flood, in Hitler, The Path to Power (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), 615, note 28.
461. Lüdecke, I Knew Hitler, 489.
462. George Ward Price, I Know These Dictators (London: Harrap, 1937), 39.
463. Sisley Huddleston, In My Time: An Observer's Record of War and Peace (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1938), 302.
464. Stanley High, "Hitler and the New Germany," Literary Digest 116 (October 7, 1933): 42.
465. Joachim C. Fest, Hitler, trans. Richard Winstonand Clara Winston (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1974)
466. "Hitler Source Book," (Washington, D.C.: National Archives, Records ofthe Office of Strategic Services, 1943), RG 226, pp. 642, 644.
467. Egon Larson, Weimar Eyewitness (London: Bachman & Turner, 1976), 147.
468. Quoted in Heinrich Hoffmann, Hitler Was My Friend, (London: Burke, 1955), 47.
469. Bella Fromm, Blood and Banquets: A Berlin Social Diary (New York: Harper, 1942), 96-97
470. Ernst Rüdiger and Fürst von Starhemberg, BetweenHitler and Mussolini: The Jews and the Italian Authorities in France and Tunisia (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1942), 78
471. Dorothy Thompson, I Saw Hitler (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1932), 16
472. Louis P. Lochner, What about Germany? (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1942), 111.
473. H. R. Knickerbocker, Is Tomorrow Hitler's?: 200 Questions on the Battleof Mankind (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1941), 11.
474. T. R. Ybarra, Collier's (July 1, 1933), 17.
475. Frederick Oechsner, This Is the Enemy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1944), 69.
476. Lothrop Stoddard, Into the Darkness: Nazi Germany Today (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1940), 292.
477. C. G. Jung, "The Transcendent Function," The CollectedWorks of C. G. Jung (New York: Pantheon Books, 1953), vol. 8, paras. 166-75.
478. Lochner, What about Germany? 112.
479. Interview with Adolf Zeissler in Hollywood, California, June 24, 1943, in "Hitler Source Book," 921.
480. Müller, Im Wandel einer Welt, 162-63.
481. Quoted in St. Clair McKelway, "Who Was Hitler?" Saturday EveningPost 213 (1940): 12.
482. Quoted in Leo Lania, Today We Are Brothers: The Biography of a Generation (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1942), 234.
483. Strasser, Hitler and I, 65-66.
484. Quoted in Janet Flanner, An American in Paris: Profile of an Interlude betweenTwo Wars (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1940), 414.
485. Otto Strasser and Michael Stern, Flight from Terror (New York: R. M. McBride, 1943), 24-25
486. Lochner, What about Germany? 109-10.
487. Cyril Brown, "New Popular Idol Rises in Bavaria," New York Times, November, 21, 1922: 18.
488. Klaus Vondung, Magie und Manipulation: ideologischer Kult und politischeReligion des Nationalsozialismus (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1971).
489. A brief explanation of these ideas in English can be found in Vondung, "Spiritual Revolution and Magic: Speculation and Political Action in NationalSocialism," Modern Age 23 (1979): 394-402.
490. Hanns Johst, Ich glaube!: Bekenntnisse (Munich: Albert Langen, 1928), 75, as quoted in Vondung, "Spiritual Revolution and Magic," 400.
491. Heck, A Child of Hitler, 18, 23.
492. Otto Wagener, Hitler: Memoirs of a Confidant, ed. Henry Ashby Turner, Jr., trans. Ruth Hein (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 4.
493. Quoted in Gilmer W. Blackburn, Education in the Third Reich: A Studyof Race and History in Nazi Textbooks (Albany: State University of New YorkPress, 1985), 4.
494. Jean-Pierre Sironneau, Sécularisation et religions politiques (The Hague: Mouton, 1982), 581-82.
495. Hermann Rauschning, The Voice of Destruction (New York: Putnam, 1940), 192.
496. Rudolf Hess, "Wie wird der Mann beschaffen sein, der Deutschlandwieder zur Höhe führt," typescript in NSDAP Hauptarchiv, roll #35, folder #689, 3.
497. Müller, Im Wandel einer Welt, 144-45.
498. Denny, "France and the German Counter-Revolution," 295.
499. Theodore Abel, Why Hitler Came to Power (New York: Harvard UniversityPress, 1938), 298.
500. Lochner, What about Germany? 99.
501. Flanner, An American in Paris, 403.
502. Karl von Wiegand, "Hitler Foresees His End," Cosmopolitan 4 (1939): 28.
503. "Hitler at Fifty," Living Age 7 (1939), 453.
504. Knickerbocker, Is Tomorrow Hitler's, 45-47.
505. Hitler's Priestess: Savitri Devi, theHindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism (New York: New York University Press, 1998)
506. Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2002).
507. Joseph Nyomarkay applied Weber's concept of charisma to Hitler and hisfollowers in Charisma and Factionalism in the Nazi Party (Minneapolis: Universityof Minnesota Press, 1967).
508. "When Hitler Hit the Ceiling," Literary Digest 115 (1933): 30.
509. Rauschning, Voice of Destruction, 258.
510. Wagener, Memoirs of a Confidant, 151.
511. William L. Shirer, Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934-1941 (New York: Knopf, 1941), 588
512. Sebastian Haffner, Germany: Jekylland Hyde (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1941), 31-32
513. Stoddard, Into the Darkness, 294.
514. "Hitler Source Book," 795
515. Heiden, Adolf Hitler, 93.
516. Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich (New York: Bonanza Books, 1982), 471.
517. Quoted in Lüdecke, I Knew Hitler, 419.
518. Rauschning, Voice of Destruction, 60.
519. Quoted in Hugh Trevor-Roper, The Last Days of Hitler (New York: Macmillan, 1947), 72.
520. Thompson, I Saw Hitler, 13-14.
521. C. G. Jung, "After the Catastrophe," The Collected Works of C. G. Jung (New York: Pantheon Books, 1953), vol. 10, para. 419.
522. Strasser and Stern, Flight from Terror, 112.
523. Strasser, Hitler and I, 52.
524. Abel, Why Hitler, 118, 120.
525. Ernst Hanfstängl, Unheard Witness (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1957), 70-71.
526. Quoted in Heinz A. Heinz, Germany's Hitler (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1934), 218-19.
527. Rauschning, Voice of Destruction, 259.
528. DAGS, vol. 3, Johannes Zehfuss, 2.
529. NSDAP Hauptarchiv, roll #4, folder #100, Josef Richter, 1.
530. DAGS, vol. 1, Paul Then, 4-5.
531. DAGS, vol. 2, Georg Schorbach, 4.
532. DAGS, vol. 4, Heinz Hermann Horn, 20.
533. DAGS, vol. 1, Willi Schondorff, 3.
534. DAGS, vol. 1, Adalbert Gimbel, 9.
535. DAGS, vol. 2, Andreas Dees, 2.
536. Quoted in Blackburn, Education in the Third Reich, 11.
537. Georg Schott, Das Volksbuch vom Hitler (Munich: H. A. Wiechmann, 1924), 18. Pointedly, Schott also stated that the "Volk soul" was "conscious inhim." There is a certain psychological truth in that statement. Hitler's unconsciousoften intruded into his waking life.
538. Völkisch Beobachter, April, 21-22, 1935.
539. Heinz Haake, Das Ehrenbuch des Führers: Der Weg zur Volksgemeinschaft (Düsseldorf: F. Floeder, 1933), 32. This book was designed for youth andstressed that Hitler was "Germany's savior." Its chapter titles included "AdolfHitler's German Mission," "Germany's Awakener from Shame and Servitude," "A New Age Begins," "We Become One Volk under Adolf Hitler's Leadership," and, "I Belong to You and You Belong to Me."
540. Lucy Dawidowicz, The War against the Jews 1933-1945 (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1975), xxii.
541. Saul Friedländer's brilliant discussion of what he termed redemptive anti-Semitism can be found in Nazi Germany and the Jews (New York: Harper-Collins, 1997), esp. 73-112.
542. Hitler's 1919 typescript letter to Adolf Gemlich can be found in NSDAPHauptarchiv roll #4, folder #96. It is reproduced in Eberhard Jäckel and AxelKuhn, eds., Hitler: Sämtliche und Aufzeichnungen, 1905-1924 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1980), 88-90.
543. Josef Hell, "Wie mich Adolf Hitler über sich belehrte und für immer mich von seinem Ich bekehrte," Typescript, 5. Institute for Contemporary History, Munich.
544. Adolf Hitler, Adolf Hitler Reden, ed. Ernst Boepple (Munich: DeutscherVolksverlag, 1925), 17.
545. It was the historian Karl Schleunes, in The Twisted Road to Auschwitz: Nazi Policy toward German Jews, 1933-1939 (Urbana: University of IllinoisPress, 1970), who argued that the road to the Final Solution was twisted and notstraight.
546. As found in Kurt Pätzold, ed., Verfolgung, Vertreibung, Vernichtung: Dokumente des faschistischen Antisemitismus 1933 bis 1942 (Frankfurt amMain: Röderberg-Verlag, 1984), 111.
547. Joseph Goebbels, "Die Wahrheit in Spanien," Der Parteitag der Arbeitvom 6 bis 13 September 1937: Offizeller Bericht über den Verlauf des Reichsparteitagesmit sämtlichen Kongressreden (Munich: F. Eher, 1938), 140, 144, 156, 157. Goebbels is paraphrasing a host of famous anti-Semitic sayings by thelikes of Theodor Mommsen and Richard Wagner, among others.
548. Heinrich Himmler, Geheimreden 1933 bis 1945 und andere Ansprachen, ed. Bradley F. Smith and Agnes F. Peterson (Frankfurt on Main: Proyläen Verlag, 1974), 37.
549. Das Schwarze Korps (November 24, 1938), in Friedländer, Nazi Germanyand the Jews, 312.
550. Quoted in Pätzold, Verfolgung, Vertreibung, Vernichtung, 158. This is afrightening presentiment of the "just atonement" order of Wehrmacht Generalvon Reichenau, to be discussed shortly.
551. Max Domarus, ed., Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, 1932-1945 (Neustadt: a. d. Aisch, Schmidt, 1962), vol. 2, 1058.
552. Historians are increasingly arguing this fact. For instance see Doris L. Bergen, War and Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust (Lanham: Roman & Littlefield, 2003);
553. Donald M. McKale, Hitler's Shadow War: TheHolocaust and World War II (New York: Cooper Square Press, 2002).
554. Domarus, Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, vol. 2, 1663.
555. For recent literature on the vernichtstungkrieg, variously translated as "war of extermination" or "war of annihilation," see Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann, eds., War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941-1944 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2000).
556. For literature on the interrelationshipof ideology and annihilation see Gerd R. Ueberschär, "The IdeologicallyMotivated War of Annihilation in the East," in Rolf-Dieter Müller and Gerd R. Ueberschär, eds., Hitler's War in the East, 1941-1945: A Critical Assessment (New York: Berghahn Books, 2002), 209-80.
557. The notion of the war of annihilationis an old one, but it gained new impetus during World War II and was expandedon in subsequent years. See, in the volume cited, Jan Philipp Reemtsma, "The Concept of the War of Annihilation: Clausewitz, Ludendorff, Hitler," 13-35.
558. Quoted in Jürgen Förster, "Hitler Turns East: German War Policy in 1940 and 1941," in Bernd Wegner, ed., From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939-1941 (Providence: Berghahn Books, 1997), 129. Fouryears earlier Himmler had said much the same thing, telling leaders of the SS that "wars of the future will not be a skirmish, but a life and death settlement of peoples." Geheimreden, 48.
559. Michael Geyer, "German Strategy in the Age of Machine Warfare, 1914-1945," in Peter Paret, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavellito the Nuclear Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 546.
560. Percy Ernst Schramm, ed., Kriegstagebuch des Oberkommando derWehrmacht (Wehrmachtführungstab) 1940-1945, (Frankfurt am Main: Bernard & Graefe, 1961-1965), vol. 2, 336-37.
561. Quoted in "Deutschland zum Endkampf mit dem jüdisch-bolschewistischMordsystem angetreten." National Archives Microfilm Collection, Records ofthe National Socialist German Labor Party, T81, serial 890, roll 672, pages 5, 34, 22 of this document. The pamphlet further notes that Bolshevism is not an "idea" or "Weltanschauung" but rather "organized criminality" (22).
562. Mitteilungen für die Truppe no. 116, "Rettung aus schwester Gefahr," asfound in Manfred Messerschmidt, Die Wehrmacht im NS-Staat: Zeit der Indoktrination (Hamburg: R.v. Decker, 1969), 326-27.
563. Quoted in Bartov, Hitler's Army, 129.
564. Quoted in Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und diesowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen, 1941-1945 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1978), 115. Reichenau further argued that "Draconian measures" should be taken against civilians who harbored "partisans." Streit's main concernis the factors that elicited mistreatment of Soviet POWs. The same forces, inpart conceptualized in millennial and apocalyptic terms, also propelled atrocitiesagainst Russian civilians and Jews.
565. Joseph Goebbels, Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels, ed., Elke Fröhlich (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1996), part 1, vol. 9, 379. Entry June 16, 1941.
566. Quoted in Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners: OrdinaryGermans and the Holocaust (New York: Knopf, 1996), 404. Goldhagen iscertainly correct when he states that many German soldiers believed that theywere engaged in an apocalyptic war for existence with Jewry, one that necessitated, if not demanded, the extermination of all Jews. However, whether the "Germans" as a collective body believed this, which Goldhagen argues, is not atall clear.
567. Quoted in Deutsche Soldaten sehen die Sowjet-Union, collected andedited by Wolfgang Diewerge (Berlin: W. Limpert, 1941), 49. The letters foundin this source were clearly chosen by the Nazis for propagandistic reasons. However, I agree with Omer Bartov, Hitler's Army, note 145, 212-13, that, used incombination with other collections of letters from the front, they provide invaluableinsight into the mental conceptions of the German soldier.
568. Wilhelm Prüller, Diary of a German Soldier (London: Faber & Faber, 1963), 166.
569. Letter of August 4, 1941, in Horst Fuchs Richardson, ed., Sieg Heil! WarLetters of Tank Gunner Karl Fuchs, 1937-1941 (Hamden: Archon Book, 1987), 124.
570. Letter 351, in Ortwin Buchbender and Reinhold Sterz, eds., Das andereGesicht des Krieges: Deutsche Feldpostbriefe, 1939-1945 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1982), 171.
571. See for instance the evidence put forward by Peter Longerich, "FromMass Murder to the 'Final Solution': The Shooting of Jewish Civilians during theFirst Months of the Eastern Campaign within the Context of Nazi Jewish Genocide," in Wegner, From Peace to War, 253-75.
572. On the notion of the eastern war as a crusade and its usefulness for generatingvolunteers see Jürgen Förster, "The Crusade Aspect," in Germany and theSecond World War. Vol. 4: The Attack on the Soviet Union. Ed. by Research Institutefor Military History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 1049-80.
573. See also Wolfram Wette, "Die propagandistische Begleitmusik zumdeutschen Überfall auf die Sowjetunion am 22. Juni 1941," in "UnternehmenBarbarossa" Der deutsche Überfall auf die Sowjetunion, 1941: Berichte, Analysen, Dokumente ed. Gerd R. Ueberschär and Wolfram Wette (Paderborn: F. Schöningh, 1984), 111-29, especially pages 122-23.
574. See Gerald Reitlinger, The Final Solution: An Attempt to Exterminate theJews of Europe, 1939-1945 (South Brunswick: T. Yoseloff, 1968), 89ff;
575. Helmut Krausnick, "Die Einsatzgruppen vom Anschluß Österreichs bis zum Feldz uggegen die Sowjetunion," in Helmut Krausnick and Hans-Heinrich Wilhelm, Die Truppe des Weltanschauungskriegs: Die Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizeiund des SD, 1939-1941 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1981), 107ff, 150ff;
576. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (Chicago: QuadrangleBooks, 1961). In later editions Hilberg put the date to shortly before June 22, 1941, when Operation Barbarossa began.
577. Richard Breitman, "Plans for the Final Solution in Early 1941," GermanStudies Review 17 (1994): 483-93.
578. Originally put forth in Christopher Browning, "The Euphoria of Victoryand the Final Solution: Summer-Fall 1941," German Studies Review 17 (1994): 473-81.
579. Browning's analysis is greatly expanded in his The Origins of the FinalSolution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004).
580. Ralf Ogorreck, Die Einsatzgruppen und die "Genesis der Endlösung" (Berlin: Metropol, 1996);
581. Philippe Burrin, Hitler and the Jews: The Genesis ofthe Holocaust (New York: Edward Arnold, 1994), esp. 133ff.
582. Reproduced in Kurt Pätzold and Erika Schwarz, Tagesordnung, Judenmord: Die Wannsee-Konferenz am 20. Januar 1942: eine Dokumentation zurOrganisation der "Endlösung," 2nd ed., (Berlin: Metropol, 1992), 79.
583. Longerich, "From Mass Murder to the 'Final Solution,' 272, argues that this orderdoes in fact point to the universal order. Christian Gerlach argues the opposite in "The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews and Hitler's Decision inPrinciple to Exterminate all European Jews," in Omer Bartov, ed., The Holocaust: Origins, Implementation, Aftermath (New York: Routledge, 2000), 106-61. Longerich points out the Auschwitz commandant Hoss wrote in his autobiographythat Himmler informed him of Hitler's order to exterminate allJews in "the summer of 1941." The reason he was informed was that the "existingdeath camps in the east are unable to carry out the planned large-scale campaigns," implying that the "large-scale campaign" was to exterminate all Jews. By December 8 the first Polish Jews died in the gas chambers.
584. Gerlach, "The Wannsee Conference," 118. I will return to Gerlach'scounter argument shortly.
585. Quoted in Longerich, "From Mass Murder to the 'Final Solution,'" 270.
586. See the documentation in Czeslaw Madajczyk, "Besteht ein Synchronismuszwischen dem 'Generalplan Ost' und der Endlösung der Judenfrage?" in Wolfgang Michalka, ed., Der Zweite Weltkrieg. Analysen, Grundzüge, Forschungsbilanz, 2nd ed. (Munich: Piper, 1990): 858-73.
587. Adolf Hitler, Hitler's Secret Conversations, 1941-1944, trans. NormanCameron and R. H. Stevens (New York: Signet, 1961), 108
588. Quoted in Gerlach, "The Wannsee Conference," 136. Gerlach concludesthat this referred only to a "slow process of annihilation" to occur in the distantfuture. He provides no documentation for why he has come to this conclusion.
589. Quoted in Hermann Graml, Antisemitism in the Third Reich, trans. TimKirk (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1992), 186.
590. Discussed in Gerlach, "The Wannsee Conference," esp. 120-27.
591. Heinrich Himmler, Der Dienstkalender Heinrich Himmlers 1941/1942, ed. Peter Witte et al. (Hamburg: Hans Christians Verlag, 1999), 292-94. A photocopyof the handwritten notation can be found on page 294.
592. Trial of the Major War Criminals, vol. 27, PS-1517, 270.
593. Goebbels, Tagebücher, pt. 2, vol. 2, 498-99. Entry December 13, 1941.
594. Hans Frank, Das Diensttagebuch des deutschen Generalgouverneurs inPolen 1939-1945 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1975), ed. Werner Prägand Wolfgang Jacobmeyer, 457-58.
595. The minutes of the meeting demonstrate that there was little resistance tothe idea of extermination, only some disagreement over how to define part-Jewsand the like. Broadening the definition not only met Hitler's desires but, as Gerlach, "The Wannsee Conference," 118, notes, the broader definition sped up theprocess by diminishing the number of cases forwarded to Hitler for possible exclusionfrom deportation and eventual extermination.
596. Quoted in Gerlach, "The Wannsee Conference," note 142, page 153.
597. Dormarus, Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen, 1932-1945, vol. 2, 1828-29.
598. Quoted in Gerlach, "The Wannsee Conference," 132.
599. Quoted in Diewerge, Deutsche Soldaten sehen die Sowjet-Union, 38.
600. Quoted in Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the JewishWorld Conspiracy and Protocols of Zion (London: Serif, 1996), 240.
601. Speech excerpted in Jeremy Nokes and Geoffrey Pridham, eds., Nazism 1919-1945: A Documentary Reader, vol. 3 (Exeter: University of Exeter, 1988), 1200.
602. Quoted in Cohn, Warrant for Genocide, 211.
603. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), xiv.
604. Hitler Speaks is the title of the British edition of Rauschning's Gespräche mitHitler (New York: Europa Verlag, 1940)
605. which was published in the United States as The Voice of Destruction (New York: Putnam, 1940).
606. Besides the Eckart, Rauschning, Wagener, and Table Talk sources describedlater, accounts by individuals who witnessed such performances can be found inthe "Hitler Source Book," (Washington, D.C.: National Archives, Records of theOffice of Strategic Services, 1943), RG226 pp. 141, 292, 307, 343, 369, 420, 668.
607. Dietrich Eckart, Der Bolschewismus von Moses bis Lenin: Zwiegesprächzwischen Adolf Hitler and mir (Munich: Hoheneichen-Verlag, 1924).
608. This portion of Himmler's recommended reading list can be found in Manfred Messerschmidt, Die Wehrmacht im NS-Staat: Zeit der Indoktrination (Hamburg: R.v. Decker, 1969), 241.
609. Ernst Nolte, "Eine früher Quelle zu Hitlers Antisemitische," Historische Zeitschrift 192 (1961): 584-606.
610. Hitler's wartime monologues, compiled fromnotes taken by party secretary Martin Bormann, have most recently appeared as Hitler's Table Talk, 1941-44: His Private Conversations, 3rd ed., trans. NormanCameron and R. H. Stevens (New York: Enigma Books, 2000).
611. Margarete Plewnia, Auf dem Weg zu Hitler: Der völkische Publizist DietrichEckart (Bremen: Schüneman, 1970), esp. 94-112
612. Shaul Esh, "Eineneue literarische Quelle Hitlers? Eine methodologische Überlegung," Geschichtein Wissenshaft und Unterricht 15 (1964): 487-93.
613. Ralph Max Engelman, in his unpublished but essential "Dietrich Eckartand the Genesis of Nazism," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1971, 233-38, noted that Eckart's correspondence from the time of the work's compositionmakes it clear that Eckart is in fact the sole author. However, he adds, I believecorrectly, that "everything we know about Eckart and Hitler lends credenceto the document as a representation of the relationship and ideas they shared" (236).
614. See Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), 651, note 119
615. Albrecht Tyrell, Vom 'Trommler' zum 'Führer': der Wandel vonHitlers Selbstverständnis Zwischen 1919 u. 1924 u. d. Entwicklung d. NSDAP (Munich: Fink, 1975), 190-91, note 49, and 194, note 70. Kershaw allows Hitler some "indebtedness" to Eckart, but only for his ability to connect Hitlerwith politically and financially powerful individuals; he thus ignores Eckart's intellectualinfluence on Hitler. However, everything we know of Hitler points tothe sincerity of his feelings for Eckart. In fact, even nearly twenty years after hisdeath, with Germany entangled in world war, Hitler referred to Eckart morethan any other individual. Kershaw, not surprisingly, largely dismisses the tabletalk, as well.
616. Rauschning, Voice of Destruction.
617. Theodor Schieder, Hermann Rauschnings "Gespräche mit Hitler" alsGeschichtsquelle (Opladen: Westdeutscher, 1972), 62. It has since come out thatSchieder was complicit in the Nazi coordination of higher education and remainedsilent about this fact for years after the war. However, his analysis ofRauschning is judicious, and certainly not the work of a crypto-Nazi, as somehave recently claimed.
618. Wolfgang Hänel, Hermann Rauschnings "Gespräche mit Hitler"-EineGeschichtsfälschung (Ingolstadt: Zeitgesch. Forschungsstelle Ingolstadt, 1984).
619. Eckhard Jesse, "Herman Rauschning-Der fragwürdige Kronzeuge," inRonald Smelser, Enrico Syring and Rainer Zitelmann, eds., Die braune Elite II: 21 weitere biographische Skizzen (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1993), 193-205;
620. Fritz Tobias, "Auch Fälschungen haben lange Beine: Des Senatespräsidenten Rauschnings 'Gespräche mit Hitler,'" in Karl Corino, ed., Gefälscht!: Betrug in Politik, Literature, Wissenschaft, Kunst und Musik (Nördlingen: Greno, 1988), 91-105.
621. Martin Broszat, "Enthüllung? Die Rauschning-Kontroverse," in his NachHitler: Der Schwierige Umgang mit unserer Geschichte (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1986), 249-51.
622. Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler's World View: A Blueprint for Power (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 124-25.
623. Turner's introduction to Wagener, Memoirs of a Confidant, xvi.
624. For a fine discussion of the postconversion reconstruction of self see Charles Strozier, Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994).
625. Thomas Childers, foreword to Theodore Abel, Why Hitler Came to Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986), xvii.
626. Thomas Childers, The Nazi Voter: The Social Foundations of Fascism inGermany, 1919-1933 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983), 12.
627. Childers, The Nazi Voter; Merkl, Political Violence under the Swastika (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975);
628. Claudia Koonz, "NaziWomen before 1933: Rebels against Emancipation," Social Science Quarterly (1976): 553-63.
629. See James Rhodes, The Hitler Movement: A Modern Millenarian Revolution (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1980). With the exception ofRhodes, all these scholars miss the apocalypticism, millennialism, and messianismfound in the collection.
630. Childers, foreword to Abel's Why Hitler, xix.
631. Ludwell Denny, "France and the German Counter-Revolution," The Nation 116 (February 1923): 295.