The disability pendulum: The first decade of the Americans with disabilities act

The Disability Pendulum: The First Decade of the Americans With Disabilities Act

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 1-245

  Colker, Ruth ^a  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84900051044     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (293)

1. Time Magazine, August 15, 1988.
2. Blank Check for the Disabled, new york times, September 6, 1989, atA24.
3. time magazine, August 15, 1988.
4. los angeles times, August 4, 1988.
5. Susan F. Rasky, How the Disabled Sold Congress on a New Bill of Rights, new york times, September 17, 1989.
6. 136 cong. rec. 17361 (July 13, 1990).
7. 135 cong. rec. 19804 (September 7, 1989).
8. For an excellent discussion of the laws of various countries, see disability, divers-ability and legal change (eds. Melinda Jones & Lee Ann BasserMarks 1999).
9. Ruth Shalit, Defining Disability Down, new republic, April 25, 1997, at 16.
10. Trevor Armbrister, A Good Law Gone Bad, reader's dig., May 1998, at 145, 149.
11. Charles Lane, O'Connor Criticizes Disabilities Law as Too Vague, washingtonpost, March 15, 2002.
12. See H. Rept. 101-485, Parts 1, 2, 3, and 4.
13. H. Rept. 101-488.
14. See S. Rept. 101-558;.
15. S. Rept. 101-596.
16. Cynthia Estlund, The Supreme Court's Labor and Employment Cases ofthe 2001-2002 Term, 18 lab. law. 291 (2002).
17. One can actually trace the development of disability laws to the Civil Warera. See Peter Blanck, Civil War Pensions and Disability, 62 ohio state l.j. 109 (2001);.
18. Peter Blanck & Chen Song, "Never Forget What They Did Here": CivilWar Pensions for Gettysburg Union Army Veterans and Disability in Nineteenth-Century America, 44 wm. & mary l. rev. 1109 (2003).
19. Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Pub. L. No. 93-112, § 7(6), 87 Stat. 355, 361 (1973).
20. See EEOC v. Humiston-Keeling, Inc., 227 F.3d 1024 (7th Cir. 2000).
21. See Martha Minow, making all the difference 82-84 (1990).
22. See 42 U.S.C. § 3604.
23. See 42 U.S.C. § 12201(a).
24. See, e.g., Mantolete v. Bolger, 767 F.2d 1416 (9th Cir. 1985) (epilepsy);.
25. Scanlon v. Atascadero State Hosp., 677 F.2d 1271 (9th Cir. 1982) (diabetes);.
26. Bentivegna v. United States Dep't of Labor, 694 F.2d 619 (9th Cir. 1982) (diabetes);.
27. Davis v. United Air Lines, Inc., 662 F.2d 120 (2d Cir. 1981) (epilepsy).
28. See, e.g., EEOC v. Sara Lee Corp., 237 F.3d 349 (4th Cir. 2001).
29. Runkle v. Postmaster General, 271 F. Supp.2d 951 (E.D. Mich. 2003) (employee'sepilepsy/seizure disorder found not to be a disability);.
30. Popko v. PennsylvaniaState University, 84 F. Supp.2d 589 (M.D. Pa. 2000) (employee's epilepsy, in itsmitigated state, found not to be a disability for purposes of the ADA).
31. See, e.g., Doe v. Garrett, 903 F.2d 1455, 1457 (11th Cir. 1990);.
32. Ray v. School District of DeSoto County, 666 F. Supp. 1524, 1536 (M.D. Fla. 1987);.
33. Thomas v. Atascadero University School Dist., 662 F. Supp. 376, 381 (C.D. Calif. 1986);.
34. District 27 Community School Bd. v. Board of Ed. of New York, 130 Misc.2d 398, 413-415 (Supt. Ct. 1986).
35. See, e.g., Cortes v. McDonald's Corp., 955 F. Supp. 541 (E.D. N.C. 1996);.
36. Runnebaum v. Nationsbank of Maryland, 123 F.3d 156 (4th Cir. 1997).
37. For further discussion of that problem, see Ruth Colker, hybrid: bi-sexuals, multiracials, and other misfits under american law, 103-115 (1996).
38. See Peter David Blanck & Mollie Weighner Marti, Attitudes, Behavior, and the Employment Provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act, 42 vill. l. rev. 345, 377-78 (1997).
39. See generally Exploration on Law and Disability in Australia, 17: 2 lawin context (2000) (Special Issue) (eds. Melinda Jones & Lee Ann BasserMarks).
40. Representative Dan Burton (R-Ind.), 135 cong. rec. H6440-01 (daily ed. Oct. 2, 1989).
41. Justice Scalia's hostility to the use of legislative history is well documented. See generally Antonin Scalia, A matter of interpretation: federal courtsand the law (1997).
42. Justices Thomas and Kennedy, however, have also rejectedthe use of legislative history. See, e.g., Thunder Basin Coal Co. v. Reich, 510 U.S. 200, 219 (1994);.
43. Negonsott v. Samuels, 507 U.S. 99, 100 (1993);.
44. Pub. Citizenv. United States Dept. of Justice, 491 U.S. 440, 470-73 (1989). Justice O'-Connor has sometimes joined opinions that minimize the relevance of legislativehistory.
45. See, e.g., Gregory v. Ashcroft, 501 U.S. 452, 467 (1991).
46. See Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc., 527 U.S. 471 (1999).
47. Doe v. U.S. Postal Serv., Civ. A. No. 84-3296, 1985 WL 9446 (D.D.C. June 12, 1985).
48. Blackwell v. U.S. Dept. of Treasury (Blackwell II), 656 F. Supp. 713 (D.D.C. 1986).
49. Blackwell v. United States Dept. of Treasury, 639 F. Supp. 289 (D. D.C. 1986). 7. 656 F. Supp. at 814. 8. 830 F.2d 1183 (D.C. Cir. 1987).
50. Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, Pub. L. No. 100-259, 102 Stat. 28 (1988).
51. 134 cong. rec. S2400-01 (daily ed. March 17, 1988).
52. See Helen Dewar, Congress Overrides Civil Rights Law Veto, washingtonpost, March 23, 1988, at A1.
53. 134 cong. rec. S2400 (daily ed. March 14, 1988).
54. 134 cong. rec. S10520 (daily ed. August 1, 1988).
55. 135 cong. rec. S10776 (daily ed. September 7, 1989).
56. quoting Report of the Presidential Commissionon the Human Immune Deficiency Epidemic, June 1988, p. 123).
57. See 135 cong. rec. 8506-8507.
58. See 135 cong. rec. 1980.
59. See 135 cong. rec. 1980.
60. 134 cong. rec. 9377 (April 28, 1988).
61. See 136 cong. rec. H. 10856 (May 17, 1990) (remarks by RepresentativeSteny Hoyer (D-Md.) about Tony Coelho (D-Calif.)).
62. 134 cong. rec. at 9604 (extension of remarks) (April 29, 1988).
63. 136 cong. rec. 17375 (July 13, 1990).
64. 135 cong. rec. 18647 (1989).
65. 135 cong. rec. 19811 (1989).
66. See, e.g., Cortes v. McDonald's Corp., 955 F. Supp. 541 (E.D. N.C. 1996);.
67. Runnebaum v. Nationsbank of Maryland, N.A., 123 F.3d 156 (4th Cir. 1997).
68. 135 cong. rec. 19871 (1989).
69. See 136 cong. rec. 17376 (1990).
70. 135 cong. rec. 20096 (1989).
71. See, e.g., Krocka v. City of Chicago, 203 F.3d 507 (7th Cir. 2000).
72. 136 cong. rec. 10462 (1990).
73. See, e.g., Runnebaum v. Nationsbank of Maryland, N.A, 123 F. 3d 156 (4th Cir. 1997).
74. 136 cong. rec. 10463 (1990).
75. See EEOC v. Prevo's Family Market, Inc., 135 F.3d 1089 (6th Cir.1998).
76. 136 cong. rec. 13050 (1990).
77. H. Rept. 101-558 (1990).
78. 136 cong. rec. 16156 (1990).
79. 136 cong. rec. 17251-17277 (1990).
80. George Bush, Statement on Signing the Americans with Disabilities Actfor 1990 (July 26, 1990).
81. Ann McFeatters, White House Backs Santorum, pittsburgh postgazette, April 6, 2003, at A-1.
82. Daron Acaemoglu & Joshua D. Angrist, Consequences of EmploymentProtection? The Case of the Americans with Disabilities Act, 109 j. politicaleconomy 915 (2001).
83. Thomas DeLeire, The Wage and Employment Effects of the Americanswith Disabilities Act, 35 journal of human resources 693 (2000).
84. Christine Jolls, Accommodation Mandates, 53 stanford l. rev. 223 (2000).
85. See Pamela Loprest & Elaine Maag, Barriers to and Supports for WorkAmong Adults with Disabilities: Results from the NHIS-D (Urban Institute, January 2001).
86. Ruth Shalit, Defining Disability Down: Why Johnny Can't Read, Write, orSit Still, new republic, August 25, 1997, at 16.
87. See Ruth Colker, The Americans with Disabilities Act-A Windfall for Defendants, 34 harv. civ. rights-civ. lib. l. rev. 99 (1999).
88. See, e.g., Ruth O'Brien, crippled justice: the history of modern disabilityin the workplace 14 (2001).
89. See http://eeoc.gov/stats/ada-charges.html.
90. See http://eeoc.gov/litigation/study/study.html.
91. I accessed this data through Theodore Eisenberg's Web site. Seehttp://teddy.law.cornell.edu:8090/cgi-binjs/beta7900.
92. See Amy L. Allbright, 2001 Employment Decisions under the ADA TitleI-Survey Update, 26 mental and physical disability law reporter 394 (2002).
93. Marc A. Franklin, Winners and Losers and Why: A Study of DefamationLitigation, 1980 am. b. found. res. j. 455, 469-70 (1980).
94. Kathryn Moss et al., Different Paths to Justice: The ADA, Employment, and Administrative Enforcement by the EEOC and FEPAs, 17 behav. sci. & l. 29, 43 (1999).
95. For support of this hypothesis, see Jeffrey A. Van Detta & Dan R. Gallipeau, Judges and Juries: Why Are So ManyADA Plaintiffs Losing Summary Judgment Motions, and Would They Fare BetterBefore a Jury? A Response to Professor Colker, 19 rev. litig. 505, 574 (2000).
96. For further discussion of the use of regressionanalysis in legal scholarship, see Deborah Jones Merritt & James J. Brudney, Stalking Secret Law: What Predicts Publication in the United States Courts ofAppeals, 54 vand. l. rev. 71, 79-84 (2001).
97. See Washington v. HCA Health Serv., Inc., 152 F.3d 464 (5th Cir. 1998).
98. For general discussion of the use of social science techniques as appliedto data involving legal issues, see Deborah Jones Merritt, Research andTeaching on Law Faculties: An Empirical Exploration, 73 chi. kent. l. rev. 765, 780-82 (1998).
99. For further discussion of the antisubordination model, see Ruth Colker, Anti-Subordination Above All: Sex, Race, and Equal Protection, 61 n.y.u. l. rev. 1003 (1986).
100. The story of how the courts came to interpret Title VII to prohibit "reverse" discrimination is beyond the scope of this book. In McDonald v. Santa FeTrail Transp. Co., 427 U.S. 273 (1976).
101. Although the Court upheldthe concept of "voluntary affirmative action" in United Steelworkers of Americav. Weber, 443 U.S. 193 (1979).
102. See, e.g., Sheet Metal Workers v. EEOC, 478 U.S. 421 (1986).
103. Sutton v. United Airlines, 527 U.S. 471, 487 (1999).
104. 42 U.S.C. § 12102(2).
105. See Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc., 527 U.S. 471 (1999).
106. See Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc., 1996 WL 588917 (D. Colo. 1996).
107. See Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc., 130 F.3d 893 (10th Cir. 1997).
108. See Albertson's, Inc. v Kirkingburg, 527 U.S. 555 (1999).
109. The trial court opinion was unpublished. It is not available electronically.
110. See Kirkingburg v. Albertson's, Inc., 143 F.3d 1228 (9th Cir. 1998).
111. See Murphy v. United Parcel Service, Inc., 527 U.S. 516 (1999).
112. See Murphy v. United Parcel Service, Inc., 946 F. Supp. 872 (D. Kan. 1996).
113. See Murphy v. United Parcel Service, Inc., 141 F.3d 1185 (10th Cir. 1998) (unpublished opinion) (text available on Westlaw).
114. Martin v. PGA Tour, Inc., 532 U.S. 661 (2001).
115. See Richard Sandomir, Martin Receives Support on Capitol Hill for his PGA Suit, New york times, January 29, 1998.
116. Because the Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Kirkingburg, it had to consider the employer's defenses. Those defenses were also discussed in the Supreme Court opinion.
117. H.R. 4498, § 3(1). For further discussion, see chapter 2.
118. See Statement on Signing the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (July 26, 1990).
119. See Sutton v. United Airlines, 527 U.S. 471 (1999).
120. See generally Nick Wenbourne, Disabled Meanings: A Comparison of the Definition of "Disability" in the British Disability Discrimination Act of 1995 and the Americans with Disability Act of 1990, 23 Hastings int'l & comp. l. rev. 149 (1999).
121. See, e.g., Krocka v. City of Chicago, 203 F.3d 507 (7th Cir. 2000) (psychological impairment).
122. McKenzie v. Dovala, 242 F.3d 967 (10th Cir. 2001) (psychological impairment).
123. Matlock v. City of Dallas, 1999 WL 1032601 (N.D. Tex. 1999) (hearing impairment).
124. Todd v. Academy Corp., 57 F. Supp.2d 448 (S.D. Tex. 1999) (epilepsy).
125. Pacella v. Tufts Univ. Sch. of Dental Med., 66 F. Supp.2d 234 (D. Mass. 1999) (monocular vision and severe myopia).
126. See Gillen v. Fallon Ambulance Service, 283 F.3d 11 (1st Cir. 2002).
127. See Matlock v. City of Dallas, 1999 WL 1032601 (N.D. Tex. 1999).
128. Sutton v. United Air Lines, 523 U.S. 471, 512 (1999) (Stevens, J. dissenting).
129. See generally chapter 2. H.R 4498, § 3(1).
130. See Murphy v. United Parcel Service, 527 U.S. 516 (1999).
131. See Sutton v. United Airlines, 527 U.S. 471, 499 (1999) (Stevens, J. dissenting).
132. See Colwell v. Suffolk County Police Department, 967 F. Supp. 1419 (E.D. N.Y. 1997).
133. See Colwell v. Suffolk County Police Department, 158 F.3d 635 (2nd Cir. 1998).
134. See Sorensen v. University of Utah Hosp., F. Supp. 2d 1306 (D. Utah 1998).
135. See Sorenson v. University of Utah Hospital, 194 F.3d 1084 (10th Cir. 1999).
136. See Demming v. Housing & Redev. Auth., 66 F.3d 950 (8th Cir. 1995).
137. Taylor v. United States Postal Service, 946 F.2d 1214 (6th Cir. 1991).
138. See generally Murphy v. United Parcel Service, Inc., 527 U.S. 516 (1999).
139. 527 U.S. at 525.
140. Sutton, 527 U.S. at 491-92.
141. See 42 U.S.C. § 12113(b) (listing "Defenses," including the direct threat defense).
142. Reeves v. Sanderson Plumbing Products, Inc., 530 U.S. 133, 149 (2000).
143. 53 F.3d 55 (4th Cir. 1995).
144. 123 F.3d 156 (4th Cir. 1997) (en banc).
145. 95 F.3d 1285 (4th Cir. 1996).
146. 123 F.3d at 176 (Michael, C.J., dissenting).
147. See EEOC v. Prevo's Family Market, 135 F.3d 1089 (6th Cir. 1998).
148. 135 F.3d at 1091.
149. See 42 U.S.C. § 12112(d)(4)(A).
150. 136 cong. rec. H2471-01, 2478 (daily ed. May 17, 1990).
151. 136 cong. rec. S7422-03, 7436 (daily ed. June 6, 1990).
152. See 42 U.S.C. § 12113(d).
153. 135 F.3d at 1096-97.
154. 135 F.3d at 1104 (Moore, C.J., dissenting).
155. 137 F.3d at 404.
156. See L.C. v. Olmstead, 1997 WL148674 (N.D. Ga. 1997).
157. See L.C. v. Olmstead, 138 F.3d 893 (11th Cir. 1998).
158. 42 U.S.C. § 12111(9).
159. See Kinney v. Yerusalim, 9 F.3d 1067 (3d Cir. 1993).
160. 28 C.F.R. § 35.150(a)(3).
161. 28 C.F.R. § 35.130(d).
162. 28 C.F.R. § 35.130(b)(7).
163. 138 F.3d at 905.
164. H. Rept. No. 101-485, pt. 3 at 50, reprinted in 1990 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 473.
165. 527 U.S. at 606.
166. See Pennsylvania v. Union Gas, 491 U.S. 1 (1989).
167. See Seminole Tribe v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44 (1996).
168. City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, 473 U.S. 432 (1985).
169. See Cleburne Living Center v. City of Cleburne, 726 F.2d 191 (5th Cir. 1984).
170. 473 U.S. at 446.
171. 531 U.S. at 367.
172. See Garrett v. Board of Trustees, 989 F. Supp. 1409 (N.D. Ala. 1998).
173. Garrett v. Alabama, 193 F.3d 1214 (1989).
174. 123 S. Ct. at 1982.
175. 42 U.S.C. § 2000d.
176. 28 CFR § 42.104(b)(2)(1999).
177. See Popovich v. Cuyahoga County Court of Common Pleas, 276 F.3d 808 (6th Cir. 2002).
178. Garcia v. S.U.N.Y. Health Sci. Ctr. of Brooklyn, 280 F.3d 98, 111-12 (2d Cir. 2001).
179. See Hason v. Medical Board of California, 279 F.3d 1167 (9th Cir. 2002).
180. See Thompson v. Colorado, 278 F.3d 1020 (10th Cir. 2001).
181. Reickenbacker v. Foster, 274 F.3d 974 (5th Cir. 2001).
182. Brown v. North Carolina Division of Motor Vehicles, 166 F.3d 698 (4th Cir. 1999).
183. See Ex Parte Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1908).
184. See Bruggeman ex rel. Bruggeman v. Blagojevich, 324 F.3d 906 (7th Cir. 2003).
185. Carten v. Kent State University, 282 F.3d 391 (6th Cir. 2002).
186. Grey v. Wilburn, 270 F.3d 607 (8th Cir. 2001).
187. Roe No. 2 v. Ogden, 253 F.3d 1225 (10th Cir. 2001).
188. Randolph v. Rodgers, 253 F.3d 342 (8th Cir. 2001).
189. Armstrong v. Wilson, 124 F.3d 1019 (9th Cir. 1997).
190. Koslow v. Pennsylvania, 302 F.3d 161 (3d Cir. 2002).
191. See Townsend v. Quasim, 328 F.3d 511 (9th Cir. 2003).
192. See 28 C.F.R. § 35.151 (e).
193. See Ability Center of Greater Toledo v. City of Sandusky, 181 F. Supp.2d 797 (N.D. Ohio 2001). Two other trial courts have similarly refused to apply Sandoval to ADA Title II.
194. See Frederick L. v. Department of Public Welfare, 157 F. Supp.2d 509 (E.D. Pa. 2001).
195. Access Living of Metropolitan Chicago v. Chicago Transit Authority, No. 00 C 0770, 2001 WL 492473 (N.D. Ill. May 9, 2001).
196. These facts can be found in the briefs filed in the Supreme Court in Tennessee v. Lane. See Brief for the Private Respondents, Tennessee v. Lane, No. 02- 1667 (filed November 12, 2003), found at 2002 U.S. Briefs 1667 (LexisNexis).
197. Brief for Petitioner at *2, Board. of Trustees v. Garrett, 531 U.S. 356 (2001) (No. 99-1240), available at 2000 WL 821035.
198. Garrett, 531 U.S. at 374 n.9.
199. See Kinney v. Yerusalim, 9 F.3d 1067 (3d Cir. 1993).
200. Ohio rev. code ann. § 3781.111 (A) (West 1998).
201. Tenn. code ann. §§ 68-120, 202-1, 120-203 (2001).
202. wis. stat. ann. § 101.13 (21)(a) (West 1997).
203. 911 P. 2d 1319 (Wash. 1996).
204. wash. rev. code ann. § 49.60.215 (West 1985).
205. Fell, 911 P. 2d at 1329.
206. David v. Flexman, 109 F. Supp. 2d 776 (S.D. Ohio 1999).
207. Ohio rev. code ann. § 4112.02(6) (West 2001).
208. Davis, 109 F. Supp. 2d at 797-98.
209. See D.B. v. Bloom, 896 F. Surp. 166 (D. N.J. 1995).
210. Cal. civ. code § 51 (1982).
211. 100 Cal. Rptr. 2d 39, 42 (Cal. Ct. App. 2000).
212. State of Delaware as a Party to an Equal Accommodation Complaint, Op. Del. Att'y. Gen. No. O0-1B09, at 1 (May 30, 2000), available at 2000WL 1092966, at *1.
213. Del. code ann. tit. 1, § 4504 (1999).
214. Del. code ann. tit. 1, § 302 (16) (2001).
215. Testimony on the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1989, Staff of the House Subcomm. on Select Educ. of the Comm. on Educ. and Labor, 101st Cong. 928 (1990) (Statement of Howard Wolf, Partner, Fulbright C. Jaworski).
216. ala. code § 21-4-7 (1975).
217. ala. code § 21-7-1 (1975).
218. See Colo. rev. stat. ann. § 24-10-102 (West 2001); n.c. gen. stat. § 168A-11 (1999).
219. Fla. stat. ann. § 768.28 (West 1994 & Supp. 2000).
220. Nev. rev. stat. ann. § 41.031 (1) (Michie 1996).
221. Kan. stat. ann. § 44-1005 (2000).
222. S.c. code ann. § 43-33-540 (Law Co-op.1976).
223. 657 N.E. 2d 281 (Ohio Ct. App. 1995).
224. ohio rev. code ann. § 4112.99 (Baldwin 1995).
225. 347 N.E. 2d 527, 528-29 (Ohio 1976).
226. 657 N.E. 2d. at 282.
227. 421 U.S. 240 (1975).
228. See Motorists Mut. Ins. Co. v. Brandenburg, 643 N.E. 2d 488 (Ohio 1995).
229. ohio rev. code ann. § 2721.16 (Supp. 2001).
230. Garrett, 531 U.S. at 374 n.9.
231. See Conn. Gen. Stat. App. §§ 46a-7 (West 1995).
232. See Sutherland v. Nationwide Gen. Ins. Co., 657 N.E.2d 281 (Ohio Ct. App. 1995).
233. mich. comp. laws § 37.1101-37.1601 (1997).
234. See John Ripley, Ruling Upheld in HIV Dental Patient Treatment, Bangor daily news, April 13, 1996.
235. Abbott v. Bragdon, 163 F.3d 87 (1st Cir. 1998).
236. 135 cong. rec. 19,803 (1989).
237. Fair Housing Act of 1968, 42 U.S.C. § 3602 (h) (1994).
238. See 42 U.S.C. § 3610 (g)(2)(A) (1994).
239. See Brunnen v. Mission Ranch, 2000 WL 33915634 (N.D. Calif. 2000).
240. H.R. 4498, 100th Cong. § 9 (b) (1988).
241. U.S.C. § 12188 (a) (2) (1994).
242. 134 cong. rec. 9386 (1988).
243. S. 933, 101st Cong. § 405 (1989).
244. See generally Hearings before the Committee on Labor and Human Resources and the Subcommittee of the Handicapped on S. 933, 101st Cong. (May 9, 10, 16, and June 22, 1989).
245. 42 U.S.C. § 12181(a) (1994).
246. 135 cong. rec. 19,803 (1989).
247. 134 cong. rec. 9376 (1988).
248. See Charles Whalen & Barbara Whalen, The longest debate: a legislative history of the 1964 civil rights act 1 (1985).
249. See staff of the house of representative comm. on the judiciary, 88th cong. H.R. 7152, at 43 (Comm. Print No. 2, 1963).
250. Additional Majority Views of Hon. Robert W. Kastenmeier, House Judiciary Committee Report No. 88-914 (1963).
251. 378 U.S. 226 (1964).
252. See Joseph William Singer, No Right to Exclude: Public Accommodations and Private Property, 90 nw. u. l. rev. 1283, 1290 (1996).
253. See Jack Greenberg, Race relations and american law 15-16 (1959).
254. See Arthur Earl Bonfield, State Civil Rights Statutes. Some Proposals, 49 iowa l. rev. 1067, 1114-19 (1964).
255. See Dennis L. Wright, Note, State Legislative Response to the Federal Civil Rights Acts: A Proposal, 9 utah l. rev. 434 (1964-1965).
256. See 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-5 (amended 1972).
257. See 42 U.S.C. § 1981(b).
258. See 42 U.S.C. § 2000a-3 (a).
259. See 42 U.S.C. § 1981 (a).
260. See 42 U.S.C. § 3612.
261. See 42 U.S.C. § 3613.
262. See H. Rept. No. 100-711, at 40 (1988).
263. Hearings Before the Comm. on Labor and Human Resources and the Subcomm. of the Handicapped on S. 933, 101st Cong. 209 (1989).
264. See Betsy Pisik, Denny's Mails Check to Suit's Black Diners, Washington times, December 12,1995, at B10.
265. 461 U.S. 95 (1983).
266. 416 U.S. 312, 319 (1974).
267. 410 U.S. 1131 (1973).
268. Anderson v. Celibrezze, 460 U.S. 780, 784 n.3 (1983).
269. 484 U.S. 305 (1988).
270. See generally John Chuon Yoo, Who Measures the Chancellor's Foot? The Inherent Remedial Authority of the Federal Courts, 84 calif. l. rev. 1121, 1121-22 (1996).
271. I used cases found in the LEXIS VERDCT Library from 1993 to 1998.
272. See www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/settlemt.htm (visited on October 1, 2003).
273. See 42 U.S.C. § 12188(b)(2)(c)(i)-(ii).
274. See united states commission on civil rights, the fair housing amendments act of 1988: the enforcement report 212, table 11.4 (1994).
275. See me. rev. stat. ann., tit. 5 § 4553(8).
276. cal civ. code § 54.3 (West Supp. 1999).
277. vt. stat. ann. Tit. 9 § 4506 (1993).
278. Board of Trustees v. Garrett, 121 S. Ct. 955 (2001).
279. Sutton v. United Air Lines, Inc., 527 U.S. 471 (1999).
280. For fuller discussion of this thesis, see Ruth Colker & James J. Brudney, Dissing Congress 100 mich. l. rev. 80 (2001).
281. Section Five states: "The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article." Amendment xiv (1868).
282. Section One states that no state shall "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Amendment xiv (1868).
283. Antonin Scalia, Associate Justice, U.S. Supreme Court, Speaking at the Telecommunications Law and Policy Symposium (April 18, 2000).
284. 121 S. Ct. 955 (2001).
285. 491 U.S. 1 (1989).
286. See Seminole Tribe v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44 (1996).
287. 521 U.S. 507 (1997).
288. See Garrett, 121 S. Ct. at 976-993 (Appendices A, B, and C) (Breyer, J., dissenting).
289. Lane, 124 S. Ct. at 1999-2000.
290. Bank One Chi. v. Midwest Bank & Trust Co., 516 U.S. 264, 279-81 (Scalia, J., concurring).
291. 527 U.S. 471 (1999).
292. Antonin scalia, a matter of interpretation: federal courts and the law 32 (1997).
293. Brown v. Allen, 344 U.S. 443, 540 (1952) (Jackson, J., dissenting).