Marx, Lemkin and the genocide-ecocide nexus

International Journal of Human Rights

Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 298-319

  Crook, Martin ^a   Short, Damien ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

capitalism; ecocide; extreme energy; genocide; indigenous peoples; Marx

Indexed keywords

EID: 84899624882     PISSN: 13642987     EISSN: 1744053X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13642987.2014.914703     Document Type: Article

References (150)

1. D. Short, Australia: A Continuing Genocide?, Journal of Genocide Research 12, nos 1-2 (2010), 45-68;
2. J. Huseman and D. Short, "A Slow Industrial Genocide": Tar Sands and the Indigenous Peoples of Northern Alberta, International Journal of Human Rights 16, no. 1, (2012): 216-237, at 222.
3. J. Zalasiewicz et al., Are We Now Living in the Anthropocene, GSA Today 18, no. 2 (2008): 4-8.
4. Thomas S. Kuhn, Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 2012).
5. Claudia Card, Genocide and Social Death, Hypatia 18, no. 1 (2003): 63-79.
6. Bruce. M. Russett, International Regions and the International System: A Study in Political Ecology (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1967), vii
7. the relation of organisms or groups of organisms to their environment, I have attempted to explore some of the relations between political systems and their social and physical environment; Note
8. Leslie Anderson, The Political Ecology of the Modern Peasant: Calculation and Community (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 6.
9. Piers Blaikie and Harold Brookfield, ed., Land Degradation and Society (London: Methuen, 1987).
10. Tony Barta, Relations of Genocide: Land and Lives in the Colonization of Australia, in Genocide and the Modern Age, 2nd ed., ed. Isidor Wallimann and Michael N. Dobkowski (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000), 237-252, at 239.
11. Levene and Conversi make an interesting point that the citizens of the West, who are responsible for the lions share of carbon emissions, may be found guilty of intentionalist malice due to their refusal to desist from their addiction to consumerism. Although a compelling argument, the authors of this article would argue that it is those who effectively control and plan social production in Western societies that are ultimately responsible.
12. Mark Levene and Daniele Conversi, Subsistence Societies, Globalisation, Climate Change and Genocide: Discourses of Vulnerability and Resilience, The International Journal of Human Rights 18, no. 3 (2014): 281-97.
13. Martin Crook, The Mau Mau Genocide: A Neo-Lemkinian Analysis, Journal of Human Rights in the Commonwealth 1, 1 (2013). http://journals.sas.ac.uk/jhrc/article/view/1697/0.
14. Brett Clark and John. B. Foster, Marxs Ecology in the 21st Century, World Review of Political Economy 1, no. 1 (2010): 142-156.
15. The article is not claiming that the Marx canon is sufficient to explain all the complex ecological and environmental problems in the twenty-first century. The disputation is that, without an appreciation of the structural role of the capitalist MOP in environmental degradation, ecocide cannot be addressed or adequately explained.
16. Levene and Conversi make a similar point in the introduction to their contribution, arguing that By contrast, the Anthropocene is now having biospheric consequences so profound that before the planet re-balances its own dynamic thermal equilibrium a great extinction event, as has happened at other geological boundaries, cannot be ruled out. This would suggest an appropriate terminology not of genocide but omnicide. Note
17. Levene and Conversi, Subsistence Societies, Globalisation, Climate Change and Genocide, The International Journal of Human Rights 18, no. 3 (2014): 281-297.
18. Quoted in Clark and Foster, Marxs Ecology in the 21st Century, 144.
19. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The German Ideology (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1999), 42.
20. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Economic Manuscript of 1861-63, Third Chapter, in Collected Works (New York: International Publishers, 1988), Vol. 30, 9-346
21. The creation of use values necessarily involves appropriation of the natural world for human needs, whether these needs are needs of production or individual consumption; Note
22. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Capital, Vol. I (New York: International Publishers, 1967), 183-184, 43
23. The worker can create nothing without nature, without the sensuous external world; We see then that labour is not the only source of material wealth, of use-values produced by labour. As William Petty puts it, labour is its father and the earth is its mother. Note
24. Marx and Engels, Capital, Vol. I, 177: Marx states that labour is a process in which man and nature participate.
25. Karl Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, Vol. 3 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1971), 34
26. Labour is, first of all, a process between man and nature, a process by which man, through his own actions, mediates, regulates and controls the metabolism between himself and nature. He confronts the materials of nature as a force of nature. He sets in motion the natural forces which belong to his own body, his arms, legs, head and hands, in order to appropriate the materials of nature in a form adapted to his own needs. Through this movement he acts upon external nature and changes it, and in this way he simultaneously changes his own nature. Note
27. The latter being a feature of class exploitation. Surplus labour, once realised in the form of saleable commodities under capitalism, is transformed into profit or capital to be invested once more in production.
28. Marx therefore avoided the trap of reducing the determination of human evolution and production solely to historically determined social structures, recognising that human development occurred in and through nature and recognised also that ecological crises are historically determined and bear the mark of particular social forms of production. This can be described as a dialectical metabolic-materialist analysis.
29. John Bellamy Foster, Marxs Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociology, The American Journal of Sociology 105, no. 2 (1999): 381.
30. Thus, any notions that Marx and Engels advocated mastery of nature are categorically refuted by the above analysis and a passage Engels wrote.
31. Frederick Engels, The Part Played by Labour in the Transition from Ape to Man, in Marx and Engels Collected Works (Beijing: Peoples Press, 1972),Vol. 3, 9-346
32. We by no means rule over nature like a conqueror over a foreign people, like someone standing outside nature - but that we, with flesh, blood and brain, belong to nature, and exist in its midst, and that all our mastery of it consists in the fact that we have the advantage over all other creatures of being able to learn its laws and apply them correctly. Note
33. Levene and Conversi call the denizens of such societies that have experienced a social metabolic rift as Homo anthropocenus. They are entirely dependent as a consumer within a globalised, inherently non-sustainable monoculture - one which takes from the global commons but gives nothing back in return and when it finally breaks down, as it must under the weight of this negative equity [emphasis added].
34. Levene and Conversi, Subsistence Societies, Globalisation, Climate Change and Genocide, The International Journal of Human Rights 18, no. 3 (2014): 281-297.
35. Paul Sweezy, Capitalism and the Environment, Monthly Review 41, no. 2 (1989): 1-10.
36. John Bellamy Foster, The Treadmill of Accumulation, Organization & Environment 18, no. 1 (2005).
37. Paul Burkett, Marx and Nature (New York: St. Martins Press, 1999), 112.
38. For a detailed exposition of the soil erosion crisis and Marxs analysis see John Bellamy Foster, Marxs Ecology: Materialism and Nature (New York: Monthly Review Press), Ch. 5.
39. Marx and Engels, Capital, Vol. I, 747.
40. Burkett, Marx and Nature, 125, 129.
41. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Communist Manifesto (London: Bookmarks Publications, 2010), 12
42. The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere. All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes life and death question for all civilised nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material, but raw material drawn from the remotest zones. Note
43. Donella H. Meadows, Dennis L. Meadows, Jorgen Randers, William W. Behrens III, The Limits to Growth (New York: Universe Books, 1972).
44. For the nexus between what Kovel calls the enmity between capital and nature and the broader climate change implications
45. Joel Kovel, The Enemy of Nature: The End of Capitalism or the End of the World? (London: Zed Books 2007).
46. Huseman and Short, A Slow Industrial Genocide;
47. Short, Australia.
48. Burkett, Marx and Nature.
49. Levene and Conversi, Subsistence Societies, Globalisation, Climate Change and Genocide, The International Journal of Human Rights 18, no. 3 (2014): 281-297.
50. According to Marx, free appropriation of natural conditions takes place whenever those conditions aid in the production of use value but do not add value, in the sense of representing abstract labour time.
51. Marx and Engels, Capital, Vol. I, 204.
52. Burkett, Marx and Nature, 83.
53. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (New York: Vintage, 1973), 141.
54. Huseman and Short, A Slow Industrial Genocide, for a full definition of this extraction process.
55. Michael T. Klare, The Relentless Pursuit of Extreme Energy: A New Oil Rush Endangers the Gulf of Mexico and the Planet. http://extremeenergy.org/2013/ 03/12/the-relentless-pursuit-of-extreme-energy-a-new-oil-rush-endangers-the-gulf-of-mexico-and-the-planet/.
56. E. Lloyd-Davies, Extreme Energy: A Process Not a Category. http://extremeenergy.org/ 2013/07/25/defining-extreme-energy-a-process-not-a-category/.
57. Marxs analysis of accumulation crisis brought on by materials-supplies disturbances operates on two levels: first, focusing on the conditions of crisis caused by fluctuations in the value of the materials in question brought on by shortages, and the second, relating to the indirect fluctuations in prices brought on by the resultant competition, speculation and the credit system.
58. Karl Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, Vol. 2 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1968), 515.
59. For further elaboration of the contradiction between natures time and labours time
60. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Capital, Vol. III (New York: International Publishers, 1967), 118.
61. Marx, Theories of Surplus Value, Vol. 2, 515.
62. Marx and Engels, Capital, Vol. III, 118-19.
63. Lloyd-Davies, Extreme Energy.
64. Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation - Analysis of Government - Proposals for Redress (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1944): 79-95.
65. Dirk Moses, Raphael Lemkin, Culture, and the Concept of Genocide, in The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies, ed. Donald Bloxham and A. Dirk Moses (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2010), 19-41.
66. Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 79.
67. Moses, Raphael Lemkin, 33.
68. M. Shaw, What is Genocide? (Oxford: Polity, 2007).
69. D. Short, Cultural Genocide and Indigenous Peoples: A Sociological Approach, The International Journal of Human Rights 14, no. 6 (2010): 836-837.
70. Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 91.
71. M.A. McDonnell and A.D. Moses, Raphael Lemkin as Historian of Genocide in the Americas, Journal of Genocide Research 7, no. 4 (2005): 504-505.
72. Dominik J. Schaller and Jürgen Zimmerer, The Origins of Genocide: Raphael Lemkin as a Historian of Mass Violence (London: Routledge, 2009).
73. Moses, Raphael Lemkin, 3.
74. Christopher Powell, What Do Genocides Kill? A Relational Conception of Genocide, Journal of Genocide Research 9, no. 4 (2007): 527-547.
75. M. Abed, Clarifying the Concept of Genocide, Metaphilosophy 37, nos 3-4 (2006): 308-330.
76. Dirk Moses, Empire, Colony, Genocide: Keywords and the Philosophy of History, in Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History, ed. Dirk Moses (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2008), 3-54, 12-13.
77. J. Docker, Raphael Lemkins History of Genocide and Colonialism (Contribution for United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies, Washington, DC, 26 February 2004), 3. http://www.ushmm.org/genocide/analysis/details/ 2004-02-26/docker.pdf.
78. Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. Study of the Question of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Prepared by Mr Nicodeme Ruhashyankiko, 4 July 1978. E/CN.4/Sub.2/416.
79. The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities undertakes studies and makes recommendations to the commission concerning the prevention of discrimination against racial, religious and linguistic minorities. Composed of 26 experts, the sub-commission meets each year for four weeks. It has working groups and established Special Rapporteurs to assist it with certain tasks. http://www.un.org/rights/dpi1774e.htm (accessed 16 July 2012).
80. In international forums the UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities used the term ecocide to describe a potential crime prohibiting environmental destruction, while in later years the International Law Commission preferred narrower formulations based around the notion of severe damage to the environment.
81. New York Times, 26 February 1970; quoted in Barry Weisberg, Ecocide in Indochina (San Francisco: Canfield Press, 1970).
82. Amy M. Hay, University of Texas-Pan-American, H: Environment Roundtable Reviews 2, no. 1 (2012): 15-19. https://www.h-net.org/~environ/roundtables/env-roundtable-2-1.pdf.
83. Tord Björk, The Emergence of Popular Participation in World Politics: United Nations Conference on Human Environment 1972 (Stockholm: Department of Political Science, University of Stockholm, 1996), 15. http://www.folkrorelser.org/johannesburg/stockholm72.pdf (accessed 16 July 2012).
84. An independent organisation (1970-1976) that built awareness among governments and society on damage to nature by human misuse of technology and chemical products.
85. The purpose of the convention was to describe the destruction of the Indochinese peoples and environments by the United States government; and to call for a United Nations Convention on Ecocidal Warfare, which would receive evidence of the devastation of the human ecology of Indochina caused by the Indochina War, determine which belligerent caused that devastation, request reparations from the responsible belligerent or belligerents and seek to define and proscribe Ecocide as an international crime of war. http://www.aktivism.info/rapporter/ ChallengingUN72.pdf (accessed 16 July 2012.) Note
86. Richard A. Falk, Environmental Warfare and Ecocide - Facts, Appraisal, and Proposals, in Bulletin of Peace Proposals 1973, Vol. 1, ed. Marek Thee (Oslo; Bergen; Tromsö: Universi-tersforlaget, 1973), 80-96.
87. John H.E. Fried, War by Ecocide, in Bulletin of Peace Proposals 1973, Vol. 1, ed. Marek Thee (Oslo; Bergen; Tromsö: Universitersforlaget, 1973).
88. Arthur H. Westing, Proscription of Ecocide, Science and Public Affairs, January 1974.
89. Austria, Holy See, Poland, Romania, Rwanda, Congo and Oman;
90. E/CN.4/Sub.2/416, 11-117.
91. E/CN.4/Sub.2/SR.658, 53.
92. E/CIT.4/Sub.2/416, 185.
93. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6.
94. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6, para. 33.
95. Supportive governments: Austria, Holy See, Ecuador, Israel, Oman and Romania.
96. Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on its 38th session, Geneva, 5-30 August 1985. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/57.
97. The authors are currently researching why the review process stopped here.
98. P. Higgins, D. Short and N. South, Protecting the Planet: A Proposal for a Law of Ecocide, Crime, Law and Social Change 59, no. 3 (2013): 251-266.
99. This proposition for a the law of ecocide ties in with Marxian ecological analysis even though the preceding analysis may seem out of step with the initial location of ecologically induced genocide in the capitalist MOP a la Marx. After all, Marxism is an emancipatory project with revolutionary implications and is not best known for advocating legal and social reform. But to conflate reforms won through struggle with the essential and ultimate reform ability of the capitalist system would be a mistake. In fact, the history of struggle for social justice under capitalism attests to the fact that social reforms wrested from the system, although perhaps not always the best long-term solution, can limit and curb the excesses of the capitalist MOP. In particular, Marxs analysis of the legal restraints introduced in nineteenth-century England on work-time in factories is instructive in this case. He argued that the over-extension of the working day, caused by the treadmill of accumulation, was equivalent to the over-exploitation and degradation of the soil. In the former, the recuperative powers of what he called the life force of the nation were threatened and in the latter it was the regenerative powers of the land that were endangered. Thus the ability of capitalism to reproduce itself in the long-term was threatened by short-term monetary gain. It is here that he argues that only with general political working-class pressure and state interference, and not on the level of private economic negotiation between labour and capital, what he recognises as a public good - the common societal pool of labour power - can and must be protected.
100. Karl Marx, Value, Price and Profit (New York: International Publishers, 1976), 59.
101. Marx and Engels Capital, Vol. I, 266.
102. Survival International, Forest Peoples Alliance, Raven Trust, Cultural Survival and many more.
103. P. Wolfe, Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native, Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 4 (2006): 387-409.
104. Again Crook offers a similar analysis where the capitalist MOP is identified as the principal mechanism responsible for land grabs and, thus, genocide for territorially bounded peoples.
105. Crook, The Mau Mau Genocide.
106. Davis and Zannis in Dirk Moses, ed., Conceptual Blockages and Definitional Dilemmas in the "Racial Century": Genocides of Indigenous Peoples and the Holocaust, Patterns of Prejudice 36, no. 4 (2002), 7-36, 24.
107. In particular, the right to free prior and informed consent of those indigenous peoples affected by them - now an established international core principle most recently enshrined in Article 19 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/drip.html.
108. A full and exhaustive political economic analysis in the vein of a Marxian focus on the totality of a social formation would require an integration of an analysis of the role of the state and other political and ideological forces in dialectically constituting particular historical junctures. Unfortunately this is beyond the scope of this article.
109. D. Short, 2010, Australia: A Continuing Genocide?
110. http://www.gneppartnership.org/.
111. Comments by Resources Minister Martin Ferguson who recently stated theres going to be uranium mining on an increasing basis in Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, well see uranium mining in Queensland in due course. http://www.abc.net.au/ news/stories/2009/07/21/2631570.htm.
112. Indigenous Intervention "genocide", AAP, 7 August 2007. http://www.news.com.au/story/ 0,23599,22202385-29277,00.html.
113. Huseman and Short, A Slow Industrial Genocide, 223.
114. M. Stainsby, Into a Black Hole: Tar Sands and Oil Production in Western Canada, Upping the Anti Journal 5. http://uppingtheanti.org/journal/article/05-into-a-black-hole/ (accessed 28 February 2014).
115. Here, with peak oil and the creation of massive new oil reserves, we see again the operation of the law of value as delineated by Marx. The former being an expression of materials-supplies disturbances and the latter the utilisation of previously unused substitutes.
116. Marx and Engels, Capital, Vol. III, 118-19.
117. Huseman and Short, A Slow Industrial Genocide.
118. The recoverable oil reserves in Albertas tar sands are so bountiful that they vie with oil reserves in Saudi Arabia and Venezuela for top status Note
119. K. Peterson, Oil Versus Water: Toxic Water Poses Threat to Albertas Indigenous Communities, The Dominion: A Grassroots News Cooperative, Tar Sands Issue - Issue #48 (2007): 12, 31.
120. The United Nations Environment Program, for example, has identified the tar sands as one of the worlds top 100 hotspots of environmental degradation, International Boreal Conservation Campaign (IBBC) Canadas Tar Sands: Americas #1 Source of Oil Has Dangerous Global Consequences (2008). http://www.borealbirds.org/resources/factsheet-ibcc-tarsands.pdf; IBBC homepage, Resources (accessed January 2010), 1.
121. M. Humphries, North American Oil Sands: History of Development, Prospects for the Future (Order Code RL34258) (USA: Congressional Research Service, 17 January 2008). http:// www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34258.pdf (accessed September 2011).
122. E. Black, America With No Plan for Oil Interruption: Ironically, As Price Per Barrel Drops, American Oil Supply From Canada Imperiled (The Cutting Edge News, 3 November 2008). http://www.thecuttingedgenews.com/index.php?article=896 (accessed September 2011).
123. Peak oil and the attendant rise in the price of oil is here understood as an expression of the contradiction between the natural limits of production and the treadmill of accumulation, what Marx called materials-supplies shortages, as argued above.
124. Huseman and Short, A Slow Industrial Genocide, 216-237.
125. A damning report on waterway pollution, highlighting arsenic amongst other highly toxic substances
126. Kevin P. Timoney, A Study of Water and Sediment Quality as Related to Public Health Issues (Sherwood Park, AB: Treeline Ecological Research, 2007).
127. Kim Petersen, Oil Versus Water: Toxic Water Poses Threat to Albertas Indigenous Communities, The Dominion, no. 48 (15 October 2007).
128. For example, the Dene, Cree and Metis communities in Treaty 8 and Treaty 11 Territories.
129. Interviewed in Petersen, Oil Versus Water.
130. B.R. Johnston, Human Environmental Rights, in Human Rights: New Perspectives, New Realities, ed. A. Pollis and B. Schwab (London: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2000), 95-113, 96.
131. J. Kovel, The Enemy of Nature: The End of Capitalism or the End of the World?, 2nd ed. (London: Zed Books, 2007), xiii.
132. The term auto-genocide is used because some genocides would arguably be the consequence of conscious and unconscious self-destructive actions within the capitalist system of members of the victim social figurations themselves. The plural genocides is also used here because, despite global capitalisms culturally genocidal tendencies, there are still many thousands of distinct social figurations - geni - around the world today.
133. J. Hansen, Storms of my Grandchildren: The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity (London: Bloomsbury, 2007), 289.
134. Yale Environment, 360 Forum: Just How Safe Is "Fracking" of Natural Gas?, Opinion, 20 June 2011.
135. D. Schaller, Colonialism and Genocide - Raphael Lemkins Concept of Genocide and its Application to European Rule in Africa, Development Dialogue 50 (2008), 75-93.
136. T. Barta, Three Responses to "Can There Be Genocide Without the Intent to Commit Genocide?", Journal of Genocide Research 10, no. 1 (2008): 111-18.
137. D. Moses, Conceptual Blockages, Patterns of Prejudice 36, no. 4 (2002): 22.
138. The words as such (interestingly absent from the draft Lemkin penned) in the UN Genocide Convention require groups to be intentionally targeted because of who they are and not for any other reason such as economic gain or self-defence. Given that perpetrators may well have multiple reasons for genocidal action it is not surprising that Helen Fein for one has advocated a more sociologically realistic approach - sustained purposeful action.
139. H. Fein, Genocide: A Sociological Perspective (London: Sage, 1993), 24.
140. Under such a formula, intent can also be inferred from action, which is entirely consistent with a long-established principle in British common law - that foresight and recklessness are evidence from which intent may be inferred Note
141. J. Wien in R v. Belfon (1976) 3 All ER 46.
142. Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, in Marxs Eighteenth Brumaire: (Post)modern Interpretations, ed. M. Cowling and J. Martin (London: Pluto Press, 2002).
143. Bob Jessop, State Power: A Strategic-Relational Approach (Cambridge: Polity, 2008), 46.
144. Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984).
145. The one caveat being that the capitalist MOP and the key role of changes in production are the ultimately determining structure in any given social formation in the last instance, given the underpinning role of economic production to the non-productive relations (the state, religion, judicial relations) in what Marx labelled the superstructure and the accumulative effect of advances in productive forces over large stretches of history.
146. Chris Harman, Marxism and History: Two Essays (London: Bookmarks, 1998), 22-30.
147. This formulation also dialectically posits a role for the other subjects through struggle, namely the indigenous peoples as well as the workers who work for the aforementioned corporations. Thus indigenous peoples are conceived as not just objects but subjects of history.
148. Just such a connection is argued by Levene and Conversi when they aver any culturally homogenising and/or economically driven project that might seek to violently disrupt or suffocate traditional, diverse, subsistence practice could also be taken to be genocidal.
149. Levene and Conversi, Subsistence Societies, Globalisation, Climate Change and Genocide: Discourses of Vulnerability and Resilience, The International Journal of Human Rights 18, no. 3 (2014): 281-297.
150. Short, Cultural Genocide and Indigenous Peoples.