The journey towards elimination of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis: Not far, nor easy

Parasitology

Volumn 141, Issue 6, 2014, Pages 748-760

  Franco, J R ^a   Simarro, P P ^a   Diarra, A ^a   Ruiz Postigo, J A ^a   Jannin, J G ^a  

^a WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

disease elimination; gambiense HAT; HAT; Human African trypanosomiasis; sleeping sickness; T.b. gambiense

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS; DISEASE CONTROL; DISEASE ELIMINATION; DISEASE SURVEILLANCE; FEASIBILITY STUDY; FUNDING; HEALTH CARE; HUMAN; MEDICAL RESEARCH; NONHUMAN; PARASITE TRANSMISSION; POLITICAL WILL; POLITICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM; REVIEW; SCREENING TEST; TRYPANOSOMA GAMBIENSE; VECTOR CONTROL; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; COMMUNITY INTEGRATION; ENDEMIC DISEASE; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; PARASITE CLEARANCE; ANIMAL; DISEASE ERADICATION; PARASITOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PUBLIC HEALTH; TRYPANOSOMA; TRYPANOSOMIASIS, AFRICAN;

ANIMALS; DISEASE ERADICATION; HUMANS; PUBLIC HEALTH; TRYPANOSOMA BRUCEI GAMBIENSE; TRYPANOSOMIASIS, AFRICAN;

EID: 84898465576     PISSN: 00311820     EISSN: 14698161     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0031182013002102     Document Type: Review

References (59)

1. Brun, R., Blum, J., Chappuis, F. and Burri, C. (2010). Human African trypanosomiasis. Lancet 375, 148-159.
2. Bruto da Costa, B. F., Sant'Anna, J. F., Correia dos Santos, A., de Araujo Alvares, M. G. and Wyllie, J. A. (1916). Sleeping Sickness; a Record of Four Years' War Against it in Principe, Portuguese West Africa. Published for the Centro colonial, Lisbon, by Ballière, Tindall and Cox, London, UK.
3. Bucheton, B., MacLeod, A. and Jamonneau, V. (2011). Human host determinants influencing the outcome of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infections. Parasite Immunology 33, 438-447.
4. Buscher, P., Gilleman, Q. and Lejon, V.(2013). Rapid diagnostic test for sleeping sickness. New England Journal of Medicine 368, 1069-1070.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1993). Recommendations of the International Task Force for Disease Eradication. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 42, No. RR-16.
6. Checchi, F., Filipe, J. A., Haydon, D. T., Chandramohan, D. and Chappuis, F. (2008). Estimates of the duration of the early and late stage of gambiense sleeping sickness. BMC Infectious Diseases 8, 16.
7. Checchi, F., Cox, A. P., Chappuis, F., Priotto, G., Chandramohan, D. and Haydon, D. T. (2012). Prevalence and under-detection of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis during mass screening sessions in Uganda and Sudan. Parasites and Vectors 5, 157.
8. Cordon-Obras, C., Berzosa, P., Ndong-Mabale, N., Bobuakasi, L., Buatiche, J. N., Ndongo-Asumu, P., Benito, A. and Cano, J. (2009). Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in domestic livestock of Kogo and Mbini foci (Equatorial Guinea). Tropical Medicine and International Health 14, 535-541.
9. Duke, H. L. (1931). Trypanosoma gambiense in monkeys and ruminants; prolonged infection, immunity, and superinfection. Parasitology 23, 325-345.
10. Esterhuizen, J., Rayaisse, J. B., Tirados, I., Mpiana, S., Solano, P., Vale, G. A., Lehane, M. J. and Torr, S. J. (2011). Improving the cost-effectiveness of visual devices for the control of riverine tsetse flies, the major vectors of human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e1257.
11. Fèvre, E. M., Coleman, P. G., Odiit, M., Magona, J.W., Welburn, S. C. and Woolhouse, M. E. J. (2001). The origins of a new Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness outbreak in eastern Uganda. Lancet 358, 625-628.
12. Fèvre, E. M., Coleman, P. G., Welburn, S. C. and Maudlin, I. (2004). Reanalyzing the 1900-1920 sleeping sickness epidemic inUganda. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10, 567-573.
13. Funk, S., Nishiura, H., Heesterbeek, H., Edmunds, W. J. and Checchi, F. (2013). Identifying transmission cycles at the human-animal interface: the role of animal reservoirs in maintaining Gambiense human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Computational Biology 9, e1002855. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002855.
14. Hargrove, J. W. (2002). Tsetse Eradication: Sufficiency, Necessity and Desirability. DFID Animal Health Programme. Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
15. Hide, G. (1999). History of sleeping sickness in East Africa. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 12, 112-125.
16. Hide, G., Tait, A., Maudlin, I. and Welburn, S. C. (1996). The origins, dynamics and generation of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense epidemics in East Africa. Parasitology Today 12, 50-55.
17. Hopkins, D. R. (2013). Disease eradication. New England Journal of Medicine 368, 54-63.
18. Jacobs, R. T., Nare, B., Wring, S. A., Orr, M. D., Chen, D., Sligar, J. M., Jenks, M. X., Noe, R.A., Bowling, T. S., Mercer, L. T., Rewerts, C., Gaukel, E., Owens, J., Parham, R., Randolph, R., Beaudet, B., Bacchi, C. J., Yarlett, N., Plattner, J. J., Freund, Y., Ding, C., Akama, T., Zhang, Y.-K., Brun, R., Kaiser, M., Scandale, I. and Don, R. (2011). SCYX-7158, an orally-active benzoxaborole for the treatment of stage 2 human African trypanosomiasis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e1151. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001151.
19. Jamonneau, V., Bucheton, B., Kabore, J., Ilboudo, H., Camara, O., Courtin, F., Solano, P., Kaba, D., Kambire, R., Lingue, K., Camara, M., Baelmans, R., Lejon, V. and Büscher, P. (2010). Revisiting the immune trypanolysis test to optimize epidemiological surveillance and control of sleeping sickness in West Africa. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4, e917. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000917.
20. Jamonneau, V., Ilboudo, H., Kabore, J., Kaba, D., Koffi, M., Solano, P., Garcia, A., Courtin, D., Laveissière, C., Lingue, K., Büscher, P. and Bucheton, B. (2012). Untreated human infections by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense are not 100% fatal. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6, e1691. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001691.
21. Jelinek, T., Bisoffi, Z., Bonazzi, L., van Thiel, P., Bronner, U., de Frey, A., Gundersen, S. G., McWhinney, P., Ripamonti, D. and European Network on Imported Infectious Disease Surveillance (2002). Cluster of African trypanosomiasis in travellers to Tanzanian national parks. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8, 634-635. doi: 10.3201/eid0806.010432.
22. Kaare, M. T., Picozzi, K., Mlengeya, T., Fèvre, E. M., Mellau, L. S., Mtambo, M. M., Cleaveland, S. and Welburn, S. C. (2007). Sleeping sickness-a re-emerging disease in the Serengeti? Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 5, 117-124.
23. Kennedy, P. G. (2008). The continuing problem of human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Annals of Neurology 64, 116-126.
24. Lutumba, P., Makieya, E., Shaw, A., Meheus, F. and Boelaert, M. (2007). Human African trypanosomiasis in a rural community, Democratic Republic of Congo. Emerging Infectious Diseases 13, 248-254.
25. Makumyaviri, A., Mehlitz, D., Kageruka, P., Kazyumba, G. L. and Molisho, D.(1989). Animal reservoir hosts ofTrypanosoma brucei gambiense in Zaire: trypanosome infections in two foci in Bas-Zaire. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 40, 258-262.
26. Maurice, J. (2013). New WHO plan targets the demise of sleeping sickness. Lancet 381, 13-14.
27. Molyneux, D.H. (2001). Sterile insect release and trypanosomiasis control: a plea for realism. Trends in Parasitology 17, 413-414.
28. Morris, K. R. S. (1959). The epidemiology of sleeping sickness in East Africa. I. A sleeping sickness outbreak in Uganda in 1957. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 53, 384-393.
29. Mumba, D., Bohorquez, E., Messina, J., Kande, V., Taylor, S. M., Tshefu, A. K., Muwonga, J., Kashamuka, M. M., Emch, M., Tidwell, R., Büscher, P. and Meshnick, S. R. (2011). Prevalence of human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e1246. doi: 10.1371/journal. pntd.0001246.
30. Njiokou, F., Laveissiere, C., Simo, G., Nkinin, S., Grébaut, P., Cuny, G. and Herder, S. (2006). Wild fauna as a probable animal reservoir for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Cameroon. Infection Genetics Evolution 6, 147-153.
31. Njiokou, F., Nimpaye, H., Simo, G., Njitchouang, G. R., Asonganyi, T., Cuny, G. and Herder, S. (2010). Domestic animals as potential reservoir hosts of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in sleeping sickness foci in Cameroon. Parasite 17, 61-66.
32. Organization of African Unity (2001). Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC). Enhancing Africa's Prosperity. Plan of action. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
33. Robays, J., Bilengue, M. C. C., Van der Stuyft, P. and Boelaert, M. (2004). The effectiveness of active population screening and treatment for sleeping sickness control in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Tropical Medicine and International Health 9, 542-550. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01240.x.
34. Selby, R., Bardosh, K., Picozzi, K., Waiswa, C. and Welburn, S. C. (2013). Cattle movements and trypanosomes: restocking efforts and the spread of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness in post-conflict Uganda. Parasites and Vectors 6, 281.
35. Simarro, P. P., Franco, J. R., Ndongo, P., Nguema, E., Louis, F. J. and Jannin, J. (2006). The elimination of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness in the focus of Luba, Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea. Tropical Medicine and International Health 11, 36-46.
36. Simarro, P. P., Jannin, J. and Cattand, P. (2008). Eliminating human African trypanosomiasis: where do we stand and what comes next? PLoS Medicine 5, 174-180.
37. Simarro, P. P., Cecchi, G., Paone, M., Franco, J. R., Diarra, A., Ruiz, J. A., Fèvre, E. M., Courtin, F., Mattioli, R. C. and Jannin, J. G. (2010). The atlas of human African trypanosomiasis: a contribution to global mapping of neglected tropical diseases. International Journal of Health Geographics 9, 57.
38. Simarro, P.P., Diarra, A., Postigo, J. A. R., Franco, J. R. and Jannin, J. G. (2011). The human African trypanosomiasis control and surveillance programme of the World Health Organization 2000-2009: the way forward. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5, e1007. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001007.
39. Simarro, P. P., Cecchi, G., Franco, J. R., Paone, M., Diarra, A., Ruiz-Postigo, J. A., Fèvre, E. M., Mattioli, R. C. and Jannin, J. G. (2012). Estimating and mapping the population at risk of sleeping sickness. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6, e1859. doi: 10.1371/journal. pntd.0001859.
40. Simarro, P. P., Franco, J.R., Diarra, A., Ruiz-Postigo, J. A. and Jannin, J. G. (2013a). Diversity of human African trypanosomiasis epidemiological settings requires fine-tuning control strategies to facilitate disease elimination. Research and Reports in Tropical Medicine 4, 1-6.
41. Simarro, P. P., Cecchi, G., Franco, J. R., Paone, M., Diarra, A., Ruiz-Postigo, J. A., Mattioli, R.C. and Jannin, J.G. (2013b). Mapping the capacities of fixed health facilities to cover people at risk of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis. International Journalof Health Geographics (in press).
42. Solano, P., Torr, S.J. and Lehane, M. (2013). Is vector control needed to eliminate gambiense human African trypanosomiasis? Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 3, 33. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00033.
43. Steverding, D. (2008). The history of African trypanosomiasis. Parasites and Vectors 1, 3. doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-1-3.
44. Torreele, E., Bourdin Trunz, B., Tweats, D., Kaiser, M., Brun, R., Mazué, G., Bray, M. A. and Pécoul, B. (2010). Fexinidazole-a new oral nitroimidazole drug candidate entering clinical development for the treatment of sleeping sickness. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4, e923. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000923.
45. Van Meirvenne, N., Magnus, E. and Buscher, P. (1995). Evaluation of variant specific trypanolysis tests for serodiagnosis of human infections with Trypanosoma brucei gambiense. Acta Tropica 60, 189-199.
46. Welburn, S.C. and Maudlin, I. (2012). Priorities for the elimination of sleeping sickness. Advances in Parasitology 79, 299-337.
47. Welburn, S. C., Maudlin, I. and Simarro, P.P. (2009). Controlling sleeping sickness-a review. Parasitology 136, 1943-1949. doi: 10.1017/S0031182009006416.
48. World Health Organization (1986). Epidemiology and Control of African Trypanosomiasis. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. WHO Technical Report Series. No 739. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
49. World Health Organization (1997). 50th World Health Assembly Resolutions. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected- diseases/mediacentre/WHA-50.36-Eng.pdf.
50. World Health Organization (1998). Control and Surveillance of African Trypanosomiasis. WHO Technical Report Series. No 881. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
51. World Health Organization (2000). Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO-CDS-CSR-ISR-2000.1.pdf.
52. World Health Organization (2003). 56th World Health Assembly Resolutions. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected- diseases/mediacentre/WHA-56.7-Eng.pdf.
53. World Health Organization (2004). 57th World Health Assembly Resolutions. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected- diseases/mediacentre/WHA-57.2-Eng.pdf.
54. World Health Organization (2006). Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness): epidemiological update. Weekly Epidemiological Record 81, 71-80.
55. World Health Organization (2012a). Accelerating Work to Overcome the Global Impact of Neglected Tropical Diseases-A Roadmap for Implementation. WHO/HTM/NTD/2012.1. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
56. World Health Organization (2012b). Report of a WHO Meeting on Elimination of African Trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma brucei gambiense). Geneva, 3-5 December 2012. WHO/HTM/NTD/IDM 2013.4. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/79689/1/WHO-HTM-NTD-IDM-2013.4-eng.pdf.
57. World Health Organization (2013a). London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected-diseases/London-Declaration-NTDs.pdf.
58. World Health Organization (2013b). 66th World Health Assembly Resolutions. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/neglected-diseases/mediacentre/WHA-66.12-Eng.pdf.
59. World Health Organization (2013c). Control and Surveillance of African Trypanosomiasis. WHO Technical Report Series. No 984. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.