Ojibwe in Minnesota

Ojibwe in Minnesota

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 1-104

  Treuer, Anton ^a  

^a BEMIDJI STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84898315794     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (179)

1. Kegg, Maude. Portage Lake: Memories of an Ojibwe Childhood. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991.
2. Moose, Lawrence L., et al. Aaniin Ekidong: Ojibwe Vocabulary Project. St. Paul: Minnesota Humanities Center, 2009.
3. Nichols, John D., and Earl Nyholm (Otchingwanigan). A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995.
4. Treuer, Anton. Living Our Language: Ojibwe Tales and Oral Histories. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001.
5. Copway, George. The Traditional History and Characteristic Sketches of the Ojibway Nation. London: Charles Gilpin, 1850.
6. Tanner, Helen Hornbeck, ed. Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987.
7. Warren, William W. History of the Ojibway People. 1885. Reprint, St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1984.
8. Duthu, N. Bruce. American Indians and the Law. London: Penguin Books, 2008.
9. Getches, David H., and Charles F. Wilkinson. Federal Indian Law: Cases and Materials. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1986.
10. Adams, David Wallace. Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995.
11. Child, Brenda. Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998.
12. Graves, Kathy David, and Elizabeth Ebbott. Indians in Minnesota. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006.
13. Hoxie, Frederick. A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920. New York: Routledge, 2001.
14. Olson, James, and Raymond Wilson. Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986.
15. Ojibwe emergence as a distinct people is derived from linguistic analysis, archaeological evidence, and oral history. See William Warren, History of the Ojibway People (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press [hereafter, mhs Press], 1984)
16. George Copway, Th Traditional History and Characteristic Sketches of the Ojibway Nation (London: Charles Gilpin, 1850)
17. Johann Georg Kohl, Kitchi-Gami: Life among the Lake Superior Ojibway (St. Paul: mhs Press, 1985).
18. Information on the evolution of the Ojibwe language, dialect variance, and its relationship to other Algonquian languages is based on Anton Treuer, Living Our Language: Ojibwe Tales & Oral Histories (St. Paul: mh s Press, 2001)
19. John D. Nichols and Earl Nyholm, A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995)
20. J. Randolph Valentine, Nishnaabemwin Reference Grammar (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001).
21. Theresa M. Schenck, Th Voice of the Crane Echoes Afar: The Sociopolitical Organization of the Lake Superior Ojibwa, 1640-1855 (New York: Garland, 1997), 22
22. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 36-37
23. George Copway, Traditional History, 30. Bwaa is the correct double-vowel orthography equivalent to bwa, as it appears in the Warren orthography.
24. The morphological components of ozhibii'ige ("he writes") are known to everyday speakers of Ojibwe. However, this word is similarly glossed in Nichols and Nyholm, Concise Dictionary.
25. The Ojibwe clan system is well documented in oral histories and anthropological sketches of the Ojibwe. See especially, Warren, History of the Ojibway People; Copway, Traditional History. Also based on interviews: Archie Mosay, 1992; Thomas J. Stillday, 1995; Anna Gibbs, 1995; James Clark, 1994.
26. Intraclan marriage was the only internal domestic action punishable by death. Rarely, cases of murder were avenged, but as a matter of consistent tribal custom, this taboo was the strongest. Warfare and other intertribal altercations had their own rules. Edward Benton-Banai, The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway (Hayward, WI: Indian Country Communications, 1988), 74-78
27. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 50-52.
28. Benton-Banai, Mishomis Book, 74-78
29. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 50-52. The selection of chiefs by election rather than hereditary right in newly settled areas is well attested in primary source documents.
30. Copway, Traditional History, 140.
31. Mentor L. Williams, Schoolcraft s Narrative Journal of Travels (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, [1951] 1992), 486.
32. Interview, Eugene Stillday, 2009.
33. Michael D. McNally, Honoring Elders: Aging, Authority, and Ojibwe Religion (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009).
34. Thomas Vennum Jr., Wild Rice and the Ojibway People (St. Paul: mhs Press, 1988)
35. Benton-Banai, Mishomis Book.
36. Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus (New York: Knopf, 2005)
37. Alvin Josephy Jr., 500 Nations: An Illustrated History of North American Indians (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994)
38. Jack Leustig, 500 Nations, video documentary (Los Angeles: Warner Home Video, 1995).
39. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., Th Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, 73 vols. (New York: Pageant Book Company, 1959).
40. Calvin Martin, Keepers of the Game: Indian-Animal Relationships and the Fur Trade (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982).
41. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
42. Virgil J. Vogel, Indian Names in Michigan (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1986)
43. Charles L. Cutler, O Brave New Words: Native American Loanwords in Current English (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992)
44. Warren Upham, Minnesota Geographic Names, 3rd ed. (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2001).
45. Sylvia Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur-Trade Society (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980).
46. Tribal Membership Roll, Minnesota Chippewa Tribe. There are also many people with the last name French (spelled in English), and the last name English or a corruption of the Ojibwe word for Englishman, "Auginaush." 11. Helen Hornbeck Tanner, ed., Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987)
47. White, The Middle Ground.
48. Grand Portage Chairman John B. Flatte presented the British medals to the Minnesota Historical Society in 1970.
49. Information on Ojibwe people seeking refuge from the Iroquois Wars with the Dakota, the Ojibwe-Dakota peace conference at Fond du Lac, and the eruption of hostilities between the Ojibwe and the Dakota is taken from Thwaites, Jesuit Relations, 5:290, 55:97
50. Tanner, Atlas, 29-35, 42-43
51. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 155-326
52. Lawrence J. Burpee, Journals and Letters of Pierre Gaultier de Varennes de La Vérendrye and His Sons (Toronto, ON: The Champlain Society, 1968)
53. Emma Helen Blair, The Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and Region of the Great Lakes as Described by Nicolas Perrot, 2 vols. (Cleveland, OH: Arthur H. Clark, 1912), 160-63
54. Louise Phelps Kellogg, The British Regime in Wisconsin and the Old Northwest (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1935)
55. Louise Phelps Kellogg, Early Narratives of the Northwest, 1634-1699 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1917)
56. Louise Phelps Kellogg, The French Regime in Wisconsin and the Northwest (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1925), 95, 99, 153-54
57. William W. Folwell, A History of Minnesota, 4 vols. (St. Paul: mhs Press, 1956), 1: 80. There were also large numbers of Ottawa Indians in attendance at this event.
58. Tanner, Atlas, 65.
59. Samuel Pond, The Dakota or Sioux in Minnesota (St. Paul: mhs Press, 1986), 86-99, 110-11, 159-61.
60. Details on Ojibwe-Dakota warfare are taken from Warren, History of the Ojibway People
61. Tanner, Atlas
62. Pond, Dakota or Sioux
63. Copway, Traditional History
64. Kohl, Kitchi-Gami
65. Maude Kegg, "Nookomis Gaa-inaajimotawid," Oshkaabewis Native Journal 1.2 (1990).
66. Thomas Vennum, The Ojibwa Dance Drum: Its History and Construction (St. Paul: mhs Press, 2009).
67. Article 5 of the treaty reads, "The privilege of hunting, fishing, and gathering the wild rice, upon the lands, the rivers and the lakes included in the territory ceded, is guaranteed to the Indians." Charles J. Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: g po, 1904), 2:491-93.
68. Tanner, Atlas
69. William W. Folwell, A History of Minnesota, 4 vols. (St. Paul: mhs Press, 1956)
70. Rebecca Kugel, To Be the Main Leaders of Our People: A History of Minnesota Ojibwe Politics (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1998)
71. James M. McClurken, ed., Fish in the Lakes, Wild Rice and Game in Abundance: Testimony on Behalf of the Mille Lacs Ojibwe Hunting and Fishing Rights (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2000).
72. Information on the Sandy Lake Annuity Fiasco is taken from Bagone-giizhig, letter to the editor, Minnesota Democrat, July 15, 1851
73. Bagone-giizhig, Open Letter to William W. Warren, Minnesota Pioneer, Jan. 16, 1851
74. William W. Warren, letter to the editor, Minnesota Democrat, Jan. 28, 1851
75. Sela Wright to J. Bardwell, Feb. 1, 1851, Manuscripts Relating to Northwest Missions, Grace Lee Nute Papers, mhs; Minnesota Democrat, Jan. 21 and Dec. 10, 1851
76. Minnesota Pioneer, Nov. 21, 1850
77. William W. Warren to George P. Warren, June 24, 1852, Charles Francis Xavier Goldsmith Papers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1:4
78. William W. Warren to Alexander Ramsey, Jan. 21, 1851, enclosed with Ramsey to Luke Lea, Jan. 28, 1851, M1171, National Archives Microfilm Publications, M 234, R767, 133-34.
79. John S. Watrous to Alexander Ramsey, Dec. 22, 1851, M203, R6
80. Alexander Ramsey diaries, vol. 21, Jan. 8-9, 1851, M203, R38
81. Flat Mouth Speech at Sandy Lake, Transcribed, Translated and Sent to Alexander Ramsey, Dec. 3, 1850, M203, R5, all in Alexander Ramsey Family Papers, mhs. Julia Warren Spears, "My Journey with the Chippewa Indians," written Sep. 1921, "Reminiscence of the Assassination of Hole-in-the-Day," "Reminiscences of a Short History of the Chippewa Chief Hole-in-the-Day," and "Reminiscences of Hole-in-the-Day," all in Julia Warren Spears Papers, Minnesota Historical Society, 1.
82. The nature of government control of reservations through Indian agents, Indian police, and courts of Indian offenses is well attested in Frederick Hoxie, Th Campaign to Assimilate the Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001)
83. James Olson and Raymond Wilson, Native Americans in the Twentieth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
84. Olson and Wilson, Native Americans, 97.
85. Cited in David Wilkins, American Indian Sovereignty and the U.S. Supreme Court: The Masking of Justice (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997), 36.
86. The Indian residential boarding school system has been widely reported. See Woodlands: The Story of the Mille Lacs Ojibwe, oral history video documentary (Onamia, MN: Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe, 1994)
87. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995)
88. Tim Giago, Children Left Behind: The Dark Legacy of Indian Mission Boarding Schools (Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light Publishing, 2006)
89. Colin Calloway, First Peoples: A Documentary Survey of American Indian History (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2004), 335-96.
90. Commissioner of Indian Affairs William A. Jones, speech to Congress, 1899. All statistics about the health conditions and death rates at the residential schools are taken from Lewis Merriam, The Problem of Indian Administration: Report of a Survey Made at the Request of Honorable Hubert Work, Secretary of the Interior, and Submitted to Him, February 28, 1928 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1928), better known as the Merriam Report.
91. Alexandra Pierce, "Shattered Hearts" (report compiled for Minnesota Indian Women's Resource Center, August 2009), 83.
92. Michael Krauss, "Status of Native American Language Endangerment," in Gina Cantoni, ed., Stabilizing Indigenous Languages (Flagstaff Northern Arizona University, 1996), 17.
93. Lawrence L. Moose, et al., Aaniin Ekidong: Ojibwe Vocabulary Project (St. Paul: Minnesota Humanities Center, 2009), 4.
94. "The Real Story of the Chippewa National Forest," Minnesota Conservation Volunteer (St. Paul: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Nov./Dec. 2004)
95. Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:254-61.
96. Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:219-35
97. Chippewa Indians in Minnesota, 51st Congress, 1st session, House Executive Documents, serial 2747 (Washington, DC: gpo), 247:1-12( includes a full report from Henry Rice on flooding from dams, survey problems, and abortive legislation on arrearages and compensation), 822-27.
98. Melissa Meyer, The White Earth Tragedy: Ethnicity and Dispossession at a Minnesota Anishinaabe Reservation (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 51-52, 64-65
99. Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:265-68.
100. Congressional Record, 56th Congress, 1st session, 56, 2566
101. Congressional Record, 58th Congress, 2nd session, 685, 3660, 4413, 5546, 5825
102. Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Statutes at Large, 33:539
103. Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:266-67.
104. House of Representatives, "Report in the Matter of the Investigation of the White Earth Reservation," 62nd Congress, 3rd session, Report Number 1336, serial 6336 (Washington, DC: g po), submitted Jan. 16, 1913, 5 (Graham Report). One elder I interviewed, Joseph Auginaush, showed me the $24 grocery receipt over which his father had lost their family's allotment by Roy Lake. The trader had allowed the family to charge food at his post and then presented his charge slip to the allotment officer and demanded title to the Auginaush allotment in lieu of payment for the groceries. The allotment officer promptly turned the title over to the trader. The Auginaush family was not consulted in the transaction, and there was no due process of law, no notice, no serving of papers, no hearing. When the family complained to the allotment officer, it was simply given the grocery receipt, which it still keeps as both evidence and a reminder of treachery. This is just one of many such mistreatments that occurred during the allotment process. The abuses at White Earth were among the worst.
105. Olson and Wilson, Native Americans
106. Hoxie, Campaign to Assimilate
107. Kathy David Graves and Elizabeth Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 16-18, 29-30, 57, 62, 165
108. Calloway, First Peoples, 400-4 36.
109. Anishinaabeg Today: A Chronicle of the White Earth Band of Ojibwe 11.17 (Dec. 13, 2006): 3.
110. N. Bruce Duthu, American Indians and the Law (London: Penguin Books, 2008)
111. Charles F. Wilkinson, American Indians, Time and the Law (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987)
112. David H. Getches and Charles F. Wilkinson, Federal Indian Law: Cases and Materials (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, 1986).
113. Public Law 280, Act of Aug. 15, 1953, ch. 505, 67 Stat. 588
114. Kevin K. Washburn, "The Legacy of Bryan v. Itasca County: How an Erroneous $147 County Tax Notice Helped Bring Tribes $200 Billion in Indian Gaming Revenue," Minnesota Law Review 92.4 (April 2008): 919-70
115. the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, The State of the Native Nations: Conditions under U.S. Policies of Self-Determination (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008).
116. Information on termination is derived from Washburn, "The Legacy of Bryan v. Itasca County"
117. Calloway, First Peoples, 397-55
118. Hoxie, Campaign to Assimilate.
119. Anton Treuer, "The Miner's Canary: An Analysis of the Ojibway Spearfishing Rights Dispute in Wisconsin" (senior thesis, Princeton University, 1991)
120. Rick Whaley and Walt Bresette, Walleye Warriors: The Chippewa Treaty Rights Story (Warner, NH: Tongues of Green Fire Press, 1994)
121. McClurken, Fish in the Lakes.
122. Public Law 95-608 (Indian Child Welfare Act), 9-10, 336-37.
123. Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, Public Law 101-601, 104 Statute 3048 (Nov. 16, 1990).
124. Felix S. Cohen, Felix S. Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law (Charlottesville, VA: Michie, 1982).
125. Justice Hugo Black (1960), cited in Treuer, "Miner's Canary," 81.
126. Information on the legal, social, economic, and political dimensions of tribal gaming is derived from Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 129-58
127. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 160-61.
128. Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe website, http://www.millelacsojibwe.org.
129. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 160-61.
130. Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, 43 U.S. Statutes at Large, Chapter 233, 253. Jury duty is awarded to citizens based on a lottery of registered voters. Indian abstention from voting thus greatly reduces the chances of Indians receiving a trial by their peers.
131. Chuck Haga, "Red Lake: From Condemnation to Compassion During a Crisis," Minneapolis Star Tribune, available: http://www.rlnn.com/ArtMar06/ RLFromCondemnationCompassionDuringCrisis.html.
132. Information on a im activism is taken from Paul Smith and Robert Warrior, Like a Hurricane: The American Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996).
133. Information on these a im activities is taken primarily from "Concerned Indian Americans," Charter Statement; Interview, Clyde Bellecourt, 1994
134. Russell Means, Where White Men Fear to Tread (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995).
135. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 160-61, 271.
136. Pierce, "Shattered Hearts," 64, 77, 87.
137. Jim Ragsdale, "Kindred Spirits: The Red Lake Shootings," St. Paul Pioneer Press (March 27, 2005), A1, A7
138. Jim Ragsdale, "In Mourning, Reservation and Nearby Bemidji Are Pulled Together," Duluth News Tribune (March 27, 2005), 7A
139. "Red Lake Massacre," http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-Lake- massacre.
140. Pierce, "Shattered Hearts," 48, 83.
141. Pierce, "Shattered Hearts," 11.
142. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 92, 288.
143. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 91.
144. David L. Beaulieu, "Curly Hair and Big Feet: Physical Anthropology and the Implementation of Land Allotment on the White Earth Chippewa Reservation," American Indian Quarterly (Fall 1984): 281-314
145. Folwell, History of Minnesota, 4:291-93
146. Ales Hrdlicka, "Anthropology of the Chippewa," Holmes Anniversary Volume: Anthropological Essays (Washington, DC: privately printed, 1916), 198-227.
147. Thomas Vennum, Just Too Much of an Indian: Bill Baker, Stalwart in a Fading Culture (LaPointe, WI: Just Too Much of an Indian Press, 2008).
148. Moose et al., Aaniin Ekidong, 4
149. Anton Treuer, "The Importance of Language: A Closer Look," Oshkaabewis Native Journal 4.1( Spring 1997): 3-11 C
150. Antoni, Stabilizing Indigenous Languages
151. Jon Reyhner, ed., Teaching Indigenous Languages (Flagstaff Northern Arizona University, 1997).
152. Leanne Hinton, How to Keep Your Language Alive: A Commonsense Approach to One-on-One Language Learning (Berkeley, CA: Heydey Books, 2002).
153. The archaeological evidence challenging the Clovis First Theory (Bering Strait Theory) is broad and deep, widely published in many journals since the early 1970s. A sample of the major sources I consulted follow: James Adovasio and Jake Page, The First Americans: In Pursuit of Archaeology's Greatest Mystery (New York: Random House, 2003)
154. N. Guidon and G. Delibrias, "Carbon-14 Dates Point to Man in the Americas 32,000 Years Ago," Nature 321 (1986): 769-71
155. Robson Bonnichsen and Karen L. Turnmire, Clovis: Origins and Adaptations (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 1991)
156. Mary C. Stiner, "Modern Human Origins-Faunal Perspectives," Annual Review of Anthropology (1993): 55-77
157. David Hurst Thomas, Exploring Ancient Native America: An Archaeological Guide (New York: Macmillan, 1994)
158. David S. Whitley and Ronald I. Dorn, "New Perspectives on the Clovis vs. Pre-Clovis Controversy," American Antiquity 58.4 (1993): 626-47
159. John Noble Wilford, "Support for Early Date of Arrival in America," New York Times, Feb. 1, 1994; Mann, 1491.
160. Nichols and Nyholm, Concise Dictionary
161. Vogel, Indian Names in Michigan
162. Cutler, O Brave New Words
163. Upham, Minnesota Place Names.
164. The gendered division of labor in Ojibwe culture, the concept of balance as opposed to equality, and the role of homosexuality in Ojibwe society are well documented in oral histories and archival material. Interviews: Earl Otchingwanigan (Nyholm), 1992; Mary Roberts, 1988, 1989; Archie Mosay, 1993; Dora Ammann, 1994; Thomas J. Stillday, 1995; Anna Gibbs, 1998. Martha Coleman Bray, The Journals of Joseph N. Nicollet: A Scientist on the Mississippi Headwaters with Notes on Indian Life, 1836-37, trans. André Fertey (St. Paul: mhs Press, 1970), 165, 199-211
165. Edwin James, ed., A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner during Thirty Years Residence among the Indians in the Interior of North America (1830; repr., Minneapolis: Ross and Haines, 1956), 105-6
166. John Parker, ed., The Journals of Jonathan Carver and Related Documents (St. Paul: mhs Press, 1976), 108-10
167. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 264
168. Kugel, To Be the Main Leaders, 71-73, 92n.
169. Warren, History of the Ojibway People, 165
170. Interview, Vernon Whitefeather, 1997.
171. Information on the Battle of Sugar Point is taken from William E. Matsen, "Battle of Sugar Point: A Re-examination," Minnesota History (fall 1987): 269-75
172. Associated Press, "Emma Bear, Last Survivor of Battle of Sugar Point, Dead at 103," Brainerd Daily Dispatch, July 17, 2001.
173. Washburn, "The Legacy of Bryan v. Itasca County"
174. Calloway, First Peoples, 397-55
175. Hoxie, Campaign to Assimilate.
176. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 92, 95.
177. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 160-61.
178. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 95.
179. Moose, et al., Aaniin Ekidong, 4.