Beyond the Indian Act: Restoring aboriginal property rights

Beyond the Indian Act: Restoring Aboriginal Property Rights

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 1-224

  Flanagan, Tom ^a   Alcantara, Christopher ^b   Le Dressay, André ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY   (Canada)

^b WILFRID LAURIER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c Fiscal Realities Economists ^*  (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84898238473     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (329)

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2. Charles Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus (New York: Knopf, 2005).
3. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999).
4. Tom Flanagan, First Nations? Second Thoughts, rev. ed. (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2008), chapter 11.
5. Susan Campbell, "On 'Modest Proposals' to Further Reduce the Aboriginal Landbase by Privatizing Reserve Land," Canadian Journal of Native Studies 17 (2007), 220.
6. David Newhouse, "Modern Aboriginal Economies: Capitalism with a Red Face," Journal of Aboriginal Economic Development 1 (2000).
7. Ashley Sisco and Rodney Nelson, From Vision to Venture: An Account of Five Successful Aboriginal Businesses (Conference Board of Canada: May 2008), 43. 5 www.duhaime.org/LegalResources/RealEstateTenancy/LawArticle-63/Fee-Simple-and-Life-Estates.aspx.
8. Don Sandberg, "Reserves Show Signs of Slow Progress," www.fcpp.org/main/publication_detail.php?PubID=2359.
9. Hernando de Soto, The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World (New York: Harper & Row, 1989);
10. The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else (New York: Basic Books, 2000).
11. G.F.G. Stanley et al., eds, The Collected Writings of Louis Riel (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1985), vol. 3, 547.
12. Rick Williams to Tom Flanagan, email 8 July 2009. Lt-Col Williams was once a DND land administrator for the Harvey Barracks.
13. Mark Lowey, "Keys to Army Base Houses Turned over to Tsuu T'ina," Calgary Herald, 22 August 1998.
14. Sean Myers, "Bulk of Housing Funds Unpaid," Calgary Herald, 17 October 2006.
15. Sasha Nagy, "Black Bear Crossing, City Join Hands," Calgary Herald, 17 January 1999.
16. Brock Ketcham, "Funds Found for Native Police to Patrol Former Military Base," Calgary Herald, 11 June 1999.
17. Sean Myers, "Bulk of Housing Funds Unpaid," Calgary Herald, 17 October 2006.
18. Sarah McGinnis, "Alarms Sounded over Squatter Removal," Calgary Herald, 15 October 2006.
19. Kerry Williamson, "Prentice Wants Squatters to Return," Calgary Herald, 21 October 2006.
20. Jamie Komarnicki, "Deal Houses Black Bear Evacuees," Calgary Herald, 16 December 2006.
21. Kelly Cryderman, "Natives Picking Up Tab for Black Bear Crossing Evacuees," Calgary Herald, 3 June 2008.
22. Townsite of Redwood Meadows website, www.redwoodmeadows.ab.ca (accessed 15 August 2008).
23. Paul Willetts, "The 'Right to Buy': From Public Housing to Home Ownership," 1 May 2008, Frontier Centre website, www.fcpp.org/main/publication_detail.php?PubID=2178.
24. Richard A. Epstein, Supreme Neglect: How to Revive Constitutional Protection for Private Property (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 19.
25. John Alford, Carolyn Funk, and John Hibbing, "Are Political Orientations Genetically Transmitted?" American Political Science Review 99 (200), 153-67;
26. James Fowler and Christopher Dawes, "Two Genes Predict Voter Turnout," Journal of Politics 70 (2008), 579-94.
27. Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 47.
28. Jane Goodall, Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 190), 98-111.
29. Robert David Sack, Human Territoriality: Its Theory and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 23.
30. Thráinn Eggertsson," Open Access versus Common Property," in Terry L. Anderson and Fred S. McChesney, eds, Property Rights: Cooperation, Conflict, and Law (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 74.
31. Hayek's earliest and still famous statement of this principle was his article "The Use of Knowledge in Society," American Economic Review, 35 (1945), 519-30;
32. for an update, see Friedrich Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), vol. 1, 49.
33. Eggertsson, "Open Access versus Common Property," 85.
34. Terry L. Anderson and Peter J. Hill, "The Evolution of Property Rights," in Anderson and McChesney, Property Rights, 129.
35. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science 162 (1968), 1243-8.
36. Eggertsson, "Open Access versus Common Property," 75.
37. John Locke, The Second Treatise of Government (Indianapolis: Bobbs- Merrill, [1690] 1952), chapter 5, s. 33.
38. Harold Demsetz, "Toward a Theory of Property Rights," American Economic Review 57 (1968), 347-8.
39. Richard Pipes, Property and Freedom (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), 81.
40. Fred S. McChesney, "Government as Definer of Property Rights: Tragedy Exiting the Commons?" in Anderson and McChesney, Property Rights, 230.
41. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), 265-92.
42. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), s. 17, printed in J. Salwyn Schapiro, Liberalism: Its Meaning and History (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1958), 130.
43. Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States of America (1789), quoted in Epstein, Supreme Neglect, xi.
44. Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World (New York: Penguin Press, 2008).
45. William Louis Coutlée, A Manual of the Law of Registration of Titles to Real Estate in Manitoba and the North-West Territories (Toronto: Carswell, 1890), iv.
46. Quoted in Richard Pipes, Property and Freedom: The Story of How through the Centuries Private Ownership Has Promoted Liberty and the Rule of Law (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), 19-20.
47. Quoted in Leland Donald, "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Was the Indian Really Egalitarian?" in James A. Clifton, ed., The Invented Indian: Cultural Fictions and Government Policies (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1990), 145.
48. Matt Ridley, The Origins of Virtue: Human Instincts and the Evolution of Cooperation (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1996), 213.
49. Paul S. Wilson, "What Chief Seattle Said," Environmental Law 22 (1992), 1452.
50. Quoted in Bruce L. Benson, "Property Rights and the Buffalo Economy," in Terry L. Anderson, Bruce L. Benson, and Thomas E. Flanagan, eds, Self-Determination: The Other Path for Native Americans (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006), 31.
51. Jerome A. Offner, Law and Politics in Aztec Texcoco (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 135.
52. See also Francisco Ávalos, "An Overview of the Legal System of the Aztec Empire," Law Library Journal 86 (1994), 259-76.
53. Craig S. Galbraith, Carlos L. Rodriguez, and Curt H. Stiles, "False Myths and Indigenous Entrepreneurial Strategies," in Anderson, Benson, and Flanagan, Self-Determination, 8.
54. Ralph M. Linton, "Land Tenure in Aboriginal America," in Oliver LaFarge, ed., The Changing Indian (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1942), 42-54.
55. Leonard Carlson, "Learning to Farm: Indian Land Tenure and Farming before the Dawes Act," in Anderson, Property Rights and Indian Economies, 69.
56. Bruce G. Trigger, The Huron Farmers of the North, 2nd ed. (Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1990), 30-2.
57. Duane Champagne, "Economic Culture, Institutional Order, and Sustained Market Enterprise: Comparisons of Historical and Contemporary American Indian Cases," in Anderson, Property Rights and Indian Economies, 198-9.
58. Carlson, "Learning to Farm," 71.
59. Terry L. Anderson, Sovereign Nations or Reservations? An Economic History of American Indians (San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute for Public Policy, 1995), 35.
60. Leland Donald, Aboriginal Slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 26.
61. Dianne Newell, Tangled Webs of History: Indians and the Law in Canada's Pacific Coast Fisheries (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 41-2.
62. Diane Cragg, "The Nisga'a Land Title System-Why a Torrens Title System Works for a Canadian First Nation," presented to the 150th Anniversary of the Torrens Title System Land Administration Conference, Adelaide, South Australia, 30 October 2008.
63. Bruce Johnsen, "A Culturally Correct Proposal to Privatize the British Columbia Salmon Fishery," in Anderson, Benson, and Flanagan, Self- Determination, 101.
64. Carl Zimmer, "Conservation Biology: Rapid Evolution Can Foil Even the Best-Laid Plans," Science, vol. 300, no. 5621 (9 May 2003), 895 (www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/300/5621/895).
65. Bruce L. Benson, "Customary Indian Law: Two Case Studies," in Anderson, Property Rights and Indian Economies, 29.
66. Catherine Bell and Michael Asch, "Challenging Assumptions: The Impact of Precedent in Aboriginal Rights Litigation," in Michael Asch, ed., Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equality, and Respect for Difference (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1997), 69.
67. Benson, "Customary Indian Law," 34.
68. Benson, "Property Rights and the Buffalo Economy," 44-5.
69. Leonard Carlson, "Learning to Farm," 75.
70. Sarah Carter, Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990), 104.
71. Leonard Carlson, "Learning to Farm," 73;
72. Robert J. Smith, "Resolving the Tragedy of the Commons by Creating Private Property Rights in Wildlife," The Cato Journal 1 (1981), 452.
73. Quoted in Ann M. Carlos and Frank D. Lewis, "Native American Property Rights in the Hudson Bay Region: A Case Study of the Eighteenth- Century Cree," in Anderson, Benson, and Flanagan, Self-Determination, 81.
74. Peter J. Usher, "Property as the Basis of Inuit Hunting Rights," in Anderson, Property Rights and Indian Economies, 46.
75. D.S. Otis, The Dawes Act and the Allotment of Indian Lands (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1973 [1934]), 3.
76. Leonard Carlson, "Learning to Farm: Indian Land Tenure and Farming before the Dawes Act," in Terry L. Anderson, ed., Property Rights and Indian Economies (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1991), 67-83.
77. David M. Halford, "The Subversion of the Indian Land Allotment System, 1887-1934," The Indian Historian 8 (Spring 1975), 13.
78. Tom Flanagan, "Across the Medicine Line," in Rudyard Griffiths, ed., American Myths: What Canadians Think They Know about the United States (Toronto: Key Porter, 2008), 105-18.
79. J.P. Kinney, A Continent Lost-A Civilization Won: Indian Land Tenure in America (New York: Octagon Books, 1975, first published 1937), appendix.
80. Leonard A. Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981), 10. The Act is reprinted in Otis, Dawes Act, 177-84.
81. Terry L. Anderson, Sovereign Nations or Reservations? An Economic History of American Indians (San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute for Public Policy, 1995), 165.
82. Jennifer Roback, "Exchange, Sovereignty, and Indian-Anglo Relations," in Anderson, Property Rights and Indian Economies, 23.
83. Emily Greenwald, Reconfiguring the Reservation: The Nez Perces, Jicarilla Apaches, and the Dawes Act (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002), 34;
84. Terry L. Anderson and Dean Lueck, "Agricultural Development and Land Tenure in Indian Country," in Anderson, ed., Property Rights and Indian Economies, 148.
85. Halford, "Subversion of the Indian Land Allotment System," 14.
86. Anderson and Lueck, "Agricultural Development and Land Tenure in Indian Country," 149.
87. Terry L. Anderson, Sovereign Nations or Reservations? 112.
88. Anderson and Lueck, "Agricultural Development and Land Tenure in Indian Country."
89. Kenneth R. Philp, John Collier's Crusade for Indian Reform, 1920-1954 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977), 7-8.
90. E.A. Schwartz, "Red Atlantis Revisited: Community and Culture in the Writings of John Collier," The American Indian Quarterly 18 (1994), 507.
91. John Collier, The Indians of the Americas (New York: W.W. Norton, 1947), 15-16.
92. Fred S. McChesney, "Government as Definer of Property Rights: Indian Lands, Ethnic Externalities, and Bureaucratic Budgets," in Anderson, Property Rights and Indian Economies, 134.
93. Diane Cragg, "The Nisga'a Land Title System."
94. Brian E. Titley, Narrow Vision: Duncan Campbell Scott and the Administration of Indian Affairs in Canada (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1986), 1.
95. John L. Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation: An Outline History of Canada's Indian Policy," in Ian A.L. Getty and Antoine S. Lussier, eds, As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows. (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1983), 40.
96. William B. Henderson, Canada's Indian Reserves: Pre-Confederation (Ottawa: DIAND, 1980), 2.
97. J.R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 85-6.
98. Henderson, Canada's Indian Reserves: Pre-Confederation, 2-3.
99. Olive Patricia Dickason, Canada's First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1999), 160-1.
100. Christopher Alcantara, "Individual Property Rights on Canadian Indian Reserves: The Historical Emergence and Jurisprudence of Certificates of Possession," The Canadian Journal of Native Studies 23 (2003), 395.
101. Hamar Foster, "Canada: 'Indian Administration' from the Royal Proclamation of 1763 to Constitutionally Entrenched Aboriginal Rights," in Paul Havemann, ed., Indigenous Peoples' Rights in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999);
102. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens, 86-8; The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (Ottawa: Canada Communications Group Publishing, 1996), 116.
103. St Catherine's Milling and Lumber Company v. the Queen [1888], 14 A.C., 54.
104. Peter A. Cumming and Neil H. Mickenberg, Native Rights in Canada, 2nd ed. (Toronto: General Publishing, 1971), 30.
105. Carl Benn, The Iroquois in the War of 1812 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998).
106. Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation," 40; Titley, Narrow Vision, 2-3.
107. John Locke, Second Treatise of Government (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1989), paragraph 27.
108. Alice Kehoe, Public Lecture, Rozsa Centre, University of Calgary, 17 October 2002.
109. Locke, Second Treatise, paragraph 28.
110. Flanagan, First Nations? Second Thoughts, 41.
111. Sarah Carter, Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy. (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1990), 17.
112. John L. Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation," 40; Carter, Lost Harvests,17.
113. Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation," 41.
114. Dickason, Canada's First Nations, 222.
115. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens, 132-4.
116. Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 268.
117. Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation," 41-2.
118. Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 269.
119. John S. Milloy, "The Early Indian Acts: Developmental Strategy and Constitutional Change," in Getty and Lussier, eds, As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows, 58.
120. Carmen Place, An Historical Review of the Reserve Allotment System (Ottawa: Department of Justice, 1981), 3.
121. John E. Hall, Maureen Cowin, and John F. Rowan, The Report of the Commission of Inquiry Concerning Certain Matters Associated with the Westbank Indian Band (Ottawa: DIAND, 1988), 451;
122. John L. Tobias, "Protection, Civilization, Assimilation," 42.
123. Hall, Cowin, and Rowan, Westbank Report, 452.
124. Shin Imai, The 1998 Annotated Indian Act (Toronto: Carswell Thomson Professional Publishing, 1997), 189.
125. Hall, Cowin, and Rowan, Westbank Report, 481;
126. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens.Canadian Parliament, House of Commons Debates, First Parliament, Second Session (Ottawa, 1869), 83.
127. Canadian Parliament, House of Commons Debates, Third Parliament, Third Session, vol. 2 (Ottawa, 1876), 751.
128. Canadian Parliament, House of Commons Debates (Ottawa: 1873), A1879.
129. Deanna Christensen, Ahtahkakoop: The Epic Account of a Plains Cree Head Chief, His People, and Their Struggle for Survival, 1816-1896. (Shell Lake, SK: Ahtahkakoop Publishing, 2000), 349.
130. DIAND, Indian Acts and Amendments, 1868-1950 (Ottawa: Treaties and Historical Research Centre, 1981), 16.
131. Hall, Cowin, and Rowan, Westbank Report, 483.
132. Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 283.
133. Canadian Parliament, House of Commons Debates, 21st Parliament, Fourth Session, vol. 2, vol. 4. (Ottawa: 1951), 1353, 1355.
134. Christopher Alcantara, "Reduce Transaction Costs? Yes. Strengthen Property Rights? Maybe: The First Nations Land Management Act and Economic Development on Canadian Indian Reserves," Public Choice 132 (2007), 424.
135. Tom Flanagan and Christopher Alcantara, "Customary Land Rights on Canadian Indian Reserves," in Terry Anderson, Bruce Benson, and Tom Flanagan, eds, Self-Determination: The Other Path for Native Americans (Stanford University Press, 2006).
136. Christopher Alcantara, "Indian Women and the Division of Matrimonial Real Property on Canadian Indian Reserves," Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 18 (2006).
137. Thomas Isaac, "First Nations Land Management Act and Third Party Interests," Alberta Law Review 42 (2005), 1049-50.
138. Johnstone v. Mistawasis (2003), paragraph 24.
139. Claudia Notzke, Indian Reserves in Canada: Development Programs of the Stoney and Peigan Reserves in Alberta. (Marburg/Lahn: Im Selbstverlag des Geographischen Instituts der Universität Marburg, 1985), 48-9.
140. Akihiko Nemoto, "Dynamics of Aboriginal Land Use Institutions: The Rise and Fall of Community Control over Reserve Systems in the Lil'Wat Nation, Canada," Canadian Journal of Native Studies 22 (2002), 214.
141. Telephone interview with Alan Ray, Treaty and lands manager at Sandy Lake First Nation, 10 June 2002.
142. interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002;
143. interview with Lands Committee, Piikani Land Management Department, Alberta, 26 September 2002;
144. interview with Elliot Fox, Director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002;
145. interview with Rhonda Sullivan, Land administrator at Cowichan Tribes, BC, 16 April 2002.
146. See also Nemoto, "Dynamics of Aboriginal Land Use Institutions," 216.
147. Interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002;
148. interview with Lands Committee, Piikani Land Management Department, Alberta, 26 September 2002;
149. interview with Elliot Fox, Director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002;
150. interview with Rhonda Sullivan, land administrator at Cowichan Tribes, BC, 16 April 2002.
151. Cowichan Tribes, "Certificates of Possession," www.cowichantribes.com, accessed 12 August 2008.
152. Interview with Rhonda Sullivan, land administrator at Cowichan Tribes, BC, 16 April 2002;
153. Telephone interview with Alan Ray, Treaty and lands manager at Sandy Lake First Nation, 10 June 2002.
154. Interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002;
155. interview with Lands Committee, Piikani Land Management Department, Alberta, 26 September 2002;
156. interview with Elliot Fox, director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
157. Interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002;
158. interview with Lands Committee, Piikani Land Management Department, Alberta, 26 September 2002;
159. interview with Elliot Fox, director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
160. Telephone interview with Alan Ray, Treaty and lands manager at Sandy Lake First Nation, 10 June 2002.
161. Interview with Lands Committee, Piikani Land Management Department, Alberta, 26 September 2002.
162. Interview with Elliot Fox, director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002;
163. see also the Blood Tribe website at www.bloodtribe.org, accessed 12 August 2008.
164. Interview with Abraham Joe and Angus Joe, Elders and members of the Cowichan Tribes Lands Investigation Committee, BC, 17 April 2002.
165. Interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002.
166. Tom Flanagan and Christopher Alcantara, "Individual Property Rights on Canadian Indian Reserves: A Review of the Jurisprudence," Alberta Law Review 42 (2005), 1019-46.
167. Derrickson v. Kennedy 2006 BCCA 356 at paragraph 10.
168. Chief Chris Tom v. Morris 2007 BCSC 1012 at paragraphs 15-16, 21.
169. Maracle v. Grant 2008 (Ontario Superior Court) at paragraphs 8-9.
170. Nicola Band et al. v. Trans-Can Displays et al. (2000), paragraph 151.
171. Williams et al. v. Briggs (2001), paragraph 12.
172. Interview with Lands Committee, Piikani Land Management Department, Alberta, 26 September 2002.
173. interview with Elliot Fox, Director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002;
174. interview with Calvin Cross Child, technical advisor to Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
175. See, for example, Gladstone v. Blood Band of Indians 2004 FC 856 (Manitoba).
176. interview with Elliot Fox, director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
177. Darrel Crow Shoe, housing manager at Piikani First Nation, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
178. Interview with Darcie Royal, housing administrator at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002;
179. Siksika Chief and Council, Siksika Housing Policy Manual, Gleichen Alberta, 2002;
180. Interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002.
181. Interview with Rhonda Sullivan, land administrator at Cowichan Tribes, BC, 16 April 2002;
182. Larry George, land and governance manager at Cowichan Tribes, BC, 17 April 2002.
183. Cowichan Tribes, "On-Reserve Housing," www.cowichantribes.com, accessed 12 August 2008.
184. Darrel Crow Shoe, Housing Manager at Piikani First Nation, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
185. Interview with Lac La Ronge Indian Band Government Official Kevin MacLeod, Saskatchewan, 15 July 2005.
186. Interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002;
187. interview with Fran Wilgress, land manager and chair of the Land Management Committee at Cowichan Tribes, BC, 16 April 2002.
188. Telephone interview with Alan Ray, treaty and lands manager at Sandy Lake First Nation, 10 June 2002;
189. Interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002;
190. interview with Lands Committee, Piikani Land Management Department, Alberta, 26 September 2002;
191. interview with Elliot Fox, director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
192. Nicola Band et al. v. Trans-Can Displays et al., 2000.
193. Interview with Lands Committee, Piikani Land Management Department, Alberta, 26 September 2002.
194. interview with Elliot Fox, Director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002;
195. Interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002.
196. See Bruce Benson, "Customary Indian Law: Two Case Studies," in Terry Anderson, ed., Property Rights and Indian Economies (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1992);
197. Harold Hickerson, Land Tenure of the Rainy Lake Chippewa at the Beginning of the 19th Century (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press, 1967);
198. Bruce Trigger, The Huron Farmers of the North (Forth Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1990);
199. Leland Donald, Aboriginal Slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997);
200. Cole Harris, Making Native Space: Colonialism, Resistance, and Reserves in British Columbia (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2002).
201. Telephone interview with Alan Ray, treaty and lands manager at Sandy Lake First Nation, 10 June 2002;
202. interview with Emil Owlchild, land manager at Siksika First Nation, Alberta, 1 October 2002;
203. interview with Lands Committee, Piikani Land Management Department, Alberta, 26 September 2002;
204. interview with Elliot Fox, director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
205. Christopher Alcantara, "Certificates of Possession and First Nations Housing: A Case Study of the Six Nations Housing Program," Canadian Journal of Law and Society 20 (2005), 183-205.
206. interview with Elliot Fox, director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
207. Larry George, land and governance manager at Cowichan Tribes, BC, 17 April 2002.
208. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, "Rent Arrears Prompt First Nation to Take Own Members to Court," C BC News Online, 13 July 2005, www.north.cbc.ca.
209. Canada, Department of Indian Affairs, "Creating Individual Interest," Directive 03-02 in Land Management Manual, vol. 1 (Ottawa: 1997), 7-8.
210. James I. Reynolds, Acting for the "Purchaser" in a Conveyance of Reserve Lands (Vancouver: The Continuing Legal Education Society of British Columbia, 2002), www.cle.bc.ca.
211. Tom Flanagan and Christopher Alcantara, "Individual Property Rights on Canadian Indian Reserves: A Review of the Jurisprudence," Alberta Law Review 42 (2005), 1026-30.
212. See Christopher Alcantara, "Indian Women and the Division of Matrimonial Real Property on Canadian Indian Reserves" Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 18 (2006), 513-33.
213. Carmen Place, An Historical Review of the Reserve Allotment System (Ottawa: Department of Justice, 1981), 11.
214. Interview with Janice Martin, Six Nations lands/membership manager, and Toni Martin, Six Nations GIS technician, ON, 27 May 2002.
215. Six Nations, "Six Nations of the Grand River Band Membership Statistics" May 2008, www.sixnations.ca, accessed 12 August 2008.
216. Reynolds, Acting for the "Purchaser" in a Conveyance of Reserve Lands, www.cle.bc.ca.
217. Christopher Alcantara, Certificates of Possession: A Solution to the Aboriginal Housing Crisis on Canadian Indian Reserves (MA thesis, University of Calgary, 2002), 90-102;
218. The reasons for low default and nonpayment rates at Six Nations are discussed in Christopher Alcantara, "Certificates of Possession and First Nation Housing: A Case Study of the Six Nations Housing Program," Canadian Journal of Law and Society 20 (2005), 183-205.
219. Email correspondence with Shelda Johnson, director of the Six Nations Housing Department, Six Nations, ON, 13 August 2008.
220. L. Hammond-Ketilson and I. MacPherson, A Report on Aboriginal Co-operatives in Canada: Current Situation and Potential for Growth (Ottawa: Research and Analysis Directorate, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 2001), 42.
221. Interview with Lands Committee, Piikani First Nation, Alberta, 26 September 2002.
222. Darrel Crow Shoe, Housing Manager at Piikani First Nation, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
223. interview with Elliot Fox, director of land management with Blood Tribe, Alberta, 16 October 2002.
224. Randall Akee, "Checkerboards and Coase: Transactions Costs and Efficiency in Land Markets," IZA Discussion Paper No. 2438, November 2006
225. Interview of Lynn Vanderburg, Westbank First Nation land manager, BC
226. Dr Tim Raybould, "Address," lecture presented to the Aboriginal Law in Canada 2001 Conference, December 2001.
227. Interview with Lynn Vanderburg, Westbank First Nation land manager, BC, 18 April 2002.
228. Thomas Isaac, "First Nations Land Management Act and Third Party Interests," Alberta Law Review 42 (1995), 1049-50.
229. First Nations Land Advisory Board, Annual report 2003-2004. (Kanata: First Nations Land Management Resource Centre), 32, www.fafnlm.com, accessed on 14 August 2008.
230. First Nations Land Advisory Board, "Signatories to the Framework Agreement," www.fafnlm.com, accessed 14 August 2008.
231. Isaac, "First Nations Land Management Act and Third Party Interests," 1049-50.
232. Tom Flanagan and Christopher Alcantara, "Individual Property Rights on Canadian Indian Reserves," Queens Law Journal 29 (2004), 514-17.
233. Tom Flanagan and Christopher Alcantara, "Customary Land Rights on Canadian Indian Reserves," in Terry Anderson, Bruce Benson, and Tom Flanagan, eds, Self-determination: The Other Path for Native Americans (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006), 152.
234. Indian Affairs and Northern Canada. Experiences in First Nations, Inuit and Northern Communities: Comprehensive Community Planning. (Ottawa: INAC, 2004), 91.
235. First Nations Land Advisory Board, Annual Report 2006-2007 (Kanata: First Nations Land Management Resource Centre, 2007), 33-4.
236. Flanagan and Alcantara, "Individual Property Rights on Canadian Indian Reserves."
237. Arthur Mann, "The Economic Organization of the Ancient Maya," The Americas 30, No. 2 (1973), www.jstor.org;
238. Charles Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus (New York: Vintage Books, 2006);
239. Hal Rothman, Managing the Sacred and the Secular: An Administrative History of Pipestone National Monument (US National Park Service, Midwest Region, 1992), www.nps.gov;
240. Mirjam Hirch, Trading across Time and Space: Culture along the North American "Grease Trails" from a European Perspective (Kamloops, BC: Thompson Rivers University, Canadian Studies International Interdisciplinary Conference: Across Time & Space Visions of Canada from Abroad, 2003), www.cwis.org.
241. James Teit and Franz Boas, "The Jesup North Pacific Expedition: The Shuswap," Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History (New York: Leiden, E.J. Brill Ltd, 1909), vol. 2, vii, digitallibrary.amnh.org;
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