Alzheimer disease: Epidemiology, diagnostic criteria, risk factors and biomarkers

Biochemical Pharmacology

Volumn 88, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 640-651

  Reitz, Christiane ^a,b   Mayeux, Richard ^a,b,c  

^a Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain College of Physicians and Surgeons Columbia University ^*  (United States)

^b Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain and the Gertrude H Sergievsky Center   (United States)

^c Gertrude H Sergievsky Center College of Physicians and Surgeons Columbia University ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

Biomarkers; Neurofibrillary tangles; Neuropathological

Indexed keywords

AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN[1-40]; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN[1-42]; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CHOLESTEROL; HOMOCYSTEINE; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 6; LIPID; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BLOOD PRESSURE; BODY WEIGHT; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID ANALYSIS; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; DIET; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC EPIDEMIOLOGY; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INTELLIGENCE; LIPID BLOOD LEVEL; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NEUROIMAGING; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; SMOKING; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

BIOMARKERS; NEUROFIBRILLARY TANGLES; NEUROPATHOLOGICAL;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; GENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDY; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84897954407     PISSN: 00062952     EISSN: 18732968     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.12.024     Document Type: Review

References (222)

1. 2013 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement 2013;9(2):208-45.
2. G. McKhann, D. Drachman, M. Folstein, R. Katzman, D. Price, and E.M. Stadlan Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease Neurology 34 7 1984 939 944 (Pubitemid 14076461)
3. C.P. Ferri, M. Prince, C. Brayne, H. Brodaty, L. Fratiglioni, and M. Ganguli et al. Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study Lancet 366 9503 2005 2112 2117 (Pubitemid 41797645)
4. F.E. Matthews, A. Arthur, L.E. Barnes, J. Bond, C. Jagger, and L. Robinson et al. A two-decade comparison of prevalence of dementia in individuals aged 65 years and older from three geographical areas of England: results of the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study I and II Lancet 382 9902 2013 1405 1412
5. K. Christensen, M. Thinggaard, A. Oksuzyan, T. Steenstrup, K. Andersen-Ranberg, and B. Jeune et al. Physical and cognitive functioning of people older than 90 years: a comparison of two Danish cohorts born 10 years apart Lancet 382 9903 2013 1507 1513
6. E.M. Schrijvers, B.F. Verhaaren, P.J. Koudstaal, A. Hofman, M.A. Ikram, and M.M. Breteler Is dementia incidence declining?: trends in dementia incidence since 1990 in the Rotterdam Study Neurology 78 19 2012 1456 1463
7. W.A. Rocca, R.C. Petersen, D.S. Knopman, L.E. Hebert, D.A. Evans, and K.S. Hall et al. Trends in the incidence and prevalence of Alzheimer's disease, dementia, and cognitive impairment in the United States Alzheimer's Dement 7 1 2011 80 93
8. J. Kuusisto, K. Koivisto, K. Kervinen, L. Mykkanen, E.L. Helkala, and M. Vanhanen et al. Association of apolipoprotein E phenotypes with late onset Alzheimer's disease: population based study BMJ 309 6955 1994 636 638
9. J.C. Breitner, B.W. Wyse, J.C. Anthony, K.A. Welsh-Bohmer, D.C. Steffens, and M.C. Norton et al. APOE-epsilon4 count predicts age when prevalence of AD increases, then declines: the Cache County Study Neurology 53 2 1999 321 331 (Pubitemid 29344354)
10. E.H. Corder, A.M. Saunders, W.J. Strittmatter, D.E. Schmechel, P.C. Gaskell, and G.W. Small et al. Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families Science 261 5123 1993 921 923 (Pubitemid 23275809)
11. T. Gomez-Isla, H.L. West, G.W. Rebeck, S.D. Harr, J.H. Growdon, and J.J. Locascio et al. Clinical and pathological correlates of apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 in Alzheimer's disease Ann Neurol 39 1 1996 62 70
12. C. Holmes, R. Levy, D.M. McLoughlin, J.F. Powell, and S. Lovestone Apolipoprotein E: non-cognitive symptoms and cognitive decline in late onset Alzheimer's disease J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 61 6 1996 580 583 (Pubitemid 27023334)
13. A. Kurz, K. Altland, N. Lautenschlager, R. Zimmer, R. Busch, and I. Gerundt et al. Apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and Alzheimer's disease: effect on age at onset and relative risk in different age groups J Neurol 243 6 1996 452 456 (Pubitemid 26179032)
14. D.L. Murman, N.L. Foster, S.P. Kilgore, C.A. McDonagh, and J.K. Fink Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer's disease: strength of association is related to age at onset Dementia 7 6 1996 251 255 (Pubitemid 26278684)
15. J. Poirier, J. Davignon, D. Bouthillier, S. Kogan, P. Bertrand, and S. Apolipoprotein et al. polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease Lancet 342 8873 1993 697 699
16. A.D. Roses Alzheimer's disease: the genetics of risk Hosp Pract (Minneap) 32 7 1997 7 9 51-5, 8-63
17. A. Barabash, A. Marcos, I. Ancin, B. Vazquez-Alvarez, C. de Ugarte, and P. Gil et al. APOE, ACT and CHRNA7 genes in the conversion from amnestic mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer's disease Neurobiol Aging 30 8 2009 1254 1264
18. R.C. Petersen, G.E. Smith, R.J. Ivnik, E.G. Tangalos, D.J. Schaid, and S.N. Thibodeau et al. Apolipoprotein E status as a predictor of the development of Alzheimer's disease in memory-impaired individuals JAMA 273 16 1995 1274 1278
19. M. Sasaki, C. Kodama, S. Hidaka, F. Yamashita, T. Kinoshita, and K. Nemoto et al. Prevalence of four subtypes of mild cognitive impairment and APOE in a Japanese community Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 24 10 2009 1119 1126
20. S.L. Tyas, J.C. Salazar, D.A. Snowdon, M.F. Desrosiers, K.P. Riley, and M.S. Mendiondo et al. Transitions to mild cognitive impairments, dementia, and death: findings from the Nun Study Am J Epidemiol 165 11 2007 1231 1238 (Pubitemid 47234333)
21. E.S. Blom, V. Giedraitis, H. Zetterberg, H. Fukumoto, K. Blennow, and B.T. Hyman et al. Rapid progression from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer's disease in subjects with elevated levels of tau in cerebrospinal fluid and the APOE epsilon4/epsilon4 genotype Dement Geriatr Cognit Disord 27 5 2009 458 464
22. D.P. Devanand, G.H. Pelton, D. Zamora, X. Liu, M.H. Tabert, and M. Goodkind et al. Predictive utility of apolipoprotein E genotype for Alzheimer disease in outpatients with mild cognitive impairment Arch Neurol 62 6 2005 975 980 (Pubitemid 40973460)
23. A. Hamalainen, M. Grau-Olivares, S. Tervo, E. Niskanen, C. Pennanen, and J. Huuskonen et al. Apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele is associated with increased atrophy in progressive mild cognitive impairment: a voxel-based morphometric study Neurodegener Dis 5 3-4 2008 186 189 (Pubitemid 351347846)
24. G.Y. Hsiung, A.D. Sadovnick, and H. Feldman Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 genotype as a risk factor for cognitive decline and dementia: data from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging CMAJ 171 8 2004 863 867 (Pubitemid 39371553)
25. C.R. Jack Jr., R.C. Petersen, Y.C. Xu, P.C. O'Brien, G.E. Smith, and R.J. Ivnik et al. Prediction of AD with MRI-based hippocampal volume in mild cognitive impairment Neurology 52 7 1999 1397 1403 (Pubitemid 29190530)
26. I.H. Ramakers, P.J. Visser, P. Aalten, O. Bekers, K. Sleegers, and C.L. van Broeckhoven et al. The association between APOE genotype and memory dysfunction in subjects with mild cognitive impairment is related to age and Alzheimer pathology Dement Geriatr Cognit Disord 26 2 2008 101 108
27. M.C. Tierney, J.P. Szalai, W.G. Snow, R.H. Fisher, T. Tsuda, and H. Chi et al. A prospective study of the clinical utility of ApoE genotype in the prediction of outcome in patients with memory impairment Neurology 46 1 1996 149 154 (Pubitemid 26156121)
28. A.J. Slooter, M. Cruts, S. Kalmijn, A. Hofman, M.M. Breteler, and C. Van Broeckhoven et al. Risk estimates of dementia by apolipoprotein E genotypes from a population-based incidence study: the Rotterdam Study Arch Neurol 55 7 1998 964 968 (Pubitemid 28335115)
29. R.H. Myers, E.J. Schaefer, P.W. Wilson, R. D'Agostino, J.M. Ordovas, and A. Espino et al. Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 association with dementia in a population-based study: the Framingham study Neurology 46 3 1996 673 677
30. D. Harold, R. Abraham, P. Hollingworth, R. Sims, A. Gerrish, and M.L. Hamshere et al. Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and PICALM associated with Alzheimer's disease Nat Genet 41 10 2009 1088 1093
31. J.C. Lambert, S. Heath, G. Even, D. Campion, K. Sleegers, and M. Hiltunen et al. Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and CR1 associated with Alzheimer's disease Nat Genet 41 10 2009 1094 1099
32. S. Seshadri, A.L. Fitzpatrick, M.A. Ikram, A.L. DeStefano, V. Gudnason, and M. Boada et al. Genome-wide analysis of genetic loci associated with Alzheimer disease JAMA 303 18 2010 1832 1840
33. T. Nuutinen, T. Suuronen, A. Kauppinen, and A. Salminen Clusterin: a forgotten player in Alzheimer's disease Brain Res Rev 61 2 2009 89 104
34. M.A. Wollmer, K. Sleegers, M. Ingelsson, C. Zekanowski, N. Brouwers, and A. Maruszak et al. Association study of cholesterol-related genes in Alzheimer's disease Neurogenetics 8 3 2007 179 188 (Pubitemid 47051011)
35. R.B. DeMattos, J.R. Cirrito, M. Parsadanian, P.C. May, M.A. O'Dell, and J.W. Taylor et al. ApoE and clusterin cooperatively suppress Abeta levels and deposition: evidence that ApoE regulates extracellular Abeta metabolism in vivo Neuron 41 2 2004 193 202 (Pubitemid 38125181)
36. S. Pant, M. Sharma, K. Patel, S. Caplan, C.M. Carr, and B.D. Grant AMPH-1/Amphiphysin/Bin1 functions with RME-1/Ehd1 in endocytic recycling Nat Cell Biol 11 12 2009 1399 1410
37. F. Tebar, S.K. Bohlander, and A. Sorkin Clathrin assembly lymphoid myeloid leukemia (CALM) protein: localization in endocytic-coated pits, interactions with clathrin, and the impact of overexpression on clathrin-mediated traffic Mol Biol Cell 10 8 1999 2687 2702 (Pubitemid 29393520)
38. H. Crehan, P. Holton, S. Wray, J. Pocock, R. Guerreiro, and J. Hardy Complement receptor 1 (CR1) and Alzheimer's disease Immunobiology 217 2 2012 244 250
39. P.L. McGeer, and J. Rogers Anti-inflammatory agents as a therapeutic approach to Alzheimer's disease Neurology 42 2 1992 447 449
40. P. Hollingworth, D. Harold, R. Sims, A. Gerrish, J.C. Lambert, and M.M. Carrasquillo et al. Common variants at ABCA7, MS4A6A/MS4A4E, EPHA1, CD33 and CD2AP are associated with Alzheimer's disease Nat Genet 43 5 2011 429 435
41. A.C. Naj, G. Jun, G.W. Beecham, L.S. Wang, B.N. Vardarajan, and J. Buros et al. Common variants at MS4A4/MS4A6E, CD2AP, CD33 and EPHA1 are associated with late-onset Alzheimer's disease Nat Genet 43 5 2011 436 441
42. H. Cao, and P.R. Crocker Evolution of CD33-related siglecs: regulating host immune functions and escaping pathogen exploitation? Immunology 132 1 2011 18 26
43. S. von Gunten, and B.S. Bochner Basic and clinical immunology of Siglecs Ann NY Acad Sci 1143 2008 61 82
44. C. Vitale, C. Romagnani, M. Falco, M. Ponte, M. Vitale, and A. Moretta et al. Engagement of p75/AIRM1 or CD33 inhibits the proliferation of normal or leukemic myeloid cells PNAS 96 26 1999 15091 15096 (Pubitemid 30019770)
45. T. Yamazaki, J. Masuda, T. Omori, R. Usui, H. Akiyama, and Y. Maru EphA1 interacts with integrin-linked kinase and regulates cell morphology and motility J Cell Sci 122 Pt 2 2009 243 255
46. R.H. Adams, and R. Klein Eph receptors and ephrin ligands. essential mediators of vascular development Trends Cardiovasc Med 10 5 2000 183 188 (Pubitemid 32229885)
47. S.L. Duffy, M.G. Coulthard, M.D. Spanevello, N.I. Herath, T.M. Yeadon, and J.K. McCarron et al. Generation and characterization of EphA1 receptor tyrosine kinase reporter knockout mice Genesis 46 10 2008 553 561
48. H.L. Holen, K. Nustad, and H.C. Aasheim Activation of EphA receptors on CD4 + CD45RO + memory cells stimulates migration J Leukocyte Biol 87 6 2010 1059 1068
49. A. Sakamoto, Y. Sugamoto, Y. Tokunaga, T. Yoshimuta, K. Hayashi, and T. Konno et al. Expression profiling of the ephrin (EFN) and Eph receptor (EPH) family of genes in atherosclerosis-related human cells J Int Med Res 39 2 2011 522 527
50. S. Lehtonen, F. Zhao, and E. Lehtonen CD2-associated protein directly interacts with the actin cytoskeleton Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 283 4 2002 F734 F743
51. M.L. Dustin, M.W. Olszowy, A.D. Holdorf, J. Li, S. Bromley, and N. Desai et al. A novel adaptor protein orchestrates receptor patterning and cytoskeletal polarity in T-cell contacts Cell 94 5 1998 667 677 (Pubitemid 28427585)
52. N. Tanaka, S. Abe-Dohmae, N. Iwamoto, and S. Yokoyama Roles of ATP-binding cassette transporter A7 in cholesterol homeostasis and host defense system J Atheroscler Thromb 18 4 2011 274 281
53. S.L. Chan, W.S. Kim, J.B. Kwok, A.F. Hill, R. Cappai, and K.A. Rye et al. ATP-binding cassette transporter A7 regulates processing of amyloid precursor protein in vitro J Neurochem 106 2 2008 793 804
54. J.C. Lambert, C.A. Ibrahim-Verbaas, D. Harold, A.C. Naj, R. Sims, and C. Bellenguez et al. Meta-analysis of 74,046 individuals identifies 11 new susceptibility loci for Alzheimer's disease Nat Genet 45 12 2013 1452 1458
55. E. Rogaeva, Y. Meng, J.H. Lee, Y. Gu, T. Kawarai, and F. Zou et al. The neuronal sortilin-related receptor SORL1 is genetically associated with Alzheimer disease Nat Genet 39 2 2007 168 177 (Pubitemid 46184347)
56. C. Reitz, R. Cheng, E. Rogaeva, J.H. Lee, S. Tokuhiro, F. Zou Genetic and Environmental Risk in Alzheimer Disease 1 Consortium Meta-analysis of the association between variants in SORL1 and Alzheimer's disease Arch Neurol 68 1 2011 99 106
57. M.W. Akhtar, M.S. Kim, M. Adachi, M.J. Morris, X. Qi, and J.A. Richardson et al. In vivo analysis of MEF2 transcription factors in synapse regulation and neuronal survival PLoS One 7 4 2012 e34863
58. L.A. Farrer, L.A. Cupples, J.L. Haines, B. Hyman, W.A. Kukull, and R. Mayeux et al. Effects of age, sex, and ethnicity on the association between apolipoprotein E genotype and Alzheimer disease. A meta-analysis. APOE and Alzheimer Disease Meta Analysis Consortium JAMA 278 16 1997 1349 1356 (Pubitemid 27449696)
59. J.H. Lee, R. Cheng, S. Barral, C. Reitz, M. Medrano, and R. Lantigua et al. Identification of novel loci for Alzheimer disease and replication of CLU, PICALM, and BIN1 in Caribbean Hispanic individuals Arch Neurol 68 3 2011 320 328
60. C. Reitz, G. Jun, A. Naj, R. Rajbhandary, B.N. Vardarajan, and L.S. Wang et al. Variants in the ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABCA7), apolipoprotein E 4, and the risk of late-onset Alzheimer disease in African Americans JAMA 309 14 2013 1483 1492
61. Z.H. Cheung, K. Gong, and N.Y. Ip Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 supports neuronal survival through phosphorylation of Bcl-2 J Neurosci 28 19 2008 4872 4877
62. J.H. Weishaupt, L. Kussmaul, P. Grotsch, A. Heckel, G. Rohde, and H. Romig et al. Inhibition of CDK5 is protective in necrotic and apoptotic paradigms of neuronal cell death and prevents mitochondrial dysfunction Mol Cell Neurosci 24 2 2003 489 502 (Pubitemid 37311311)
63. Y. Wen, S.H. Yang, R. Liu, E.J. Perez, A.M. Brun-Zinkernagel, and P. Koulen et al. Cdk5 is involved in NFT-like tauopathy induced by transient cerebral ischemia in female rats Biochim Biophys Acta 1772 4 2007 473 483 (Pubitemid 46400382)
64. R.J. Glynn, L.A. Beckett, L.E. Hebert, M.C. Morris, P.A. Scherr, and D.A. Evans Current and remote blood pressure and cognitive decline JAMA 281 5 1999 438 445 (Pubitemid 29069442)
65. D. Knopman, L.L. Boland, T. Mosley, G. Howard, D. Liao, and M. Szklo et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive decline in middle-aged adults Neurology 56 1 2001 42 48 (Pubitemid 32059650)
66. H.B. Posner, M.X. Tang, J. Luchsinger, R. Lantigua, Y. Stern, and R. Mayeux The relationship of hypertension in the elderly to AD, vascular dementia, and cognitive function Neurology 58 8 2002 1175 1181 (Pubitemid 34411860)
67. I. Skoog, B. Lernfelt, S. Landahl, B. Palmertz, L.A. Andreasson, and L. Nilsson et al. 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia Lancet 347 9009 1996 1141 1145 (Pubitemid 126512042)
68. M. Kivipelto, E.L. Helkala, T. Hanninen, M.P. Laakso, M. Hallikainen, and K. Alhainen et al. Midlife vascular risk factors and late-life mild cognitive impairment: a population-based study Neurology 56 12 2001 1683 1689 (Pubitemid 32574567)
69. L.J. Launer, G.W. Ross, H. Petrovitch, K. Masaki, D. Foley, and L.R. White et al. Midlife blood pressure and dementia: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study Neurobiol Aging 21 1 2000 49 55 (Pubitemid 30224785)
70. G.E. Swan, C. DeCarli, B.L. Miller, T. Reed, P.A. Wolf, and L.M. Jack et al. Association of midlife blood pressure to late-life cognitive decline and brain morphology Neurology 51 4 1998 986 993 (Pubitemid 28473389)
71. R.A. Whitmer, S. Sidney, J. Selby, S.C. Johnston, and K. Yaffe Midlife cardiovascular risk factors and risk of dementia in late life Neurology 64 2 2005 277 281
72. R.N. Kalaria Vascular basis for brain degeneration: faltering controls and risk factors for dementia Nutr Rev 68 Suppl 2 2010 S74 S87
73. R. Deane, Z. Wu, and B.V. Zlokovic RAGE (yin) versus LRP (yang) balance regulates Alzheimer amyloid beta-peptide clearance through transport across the blood-brain barrier Stroke 35 11 Suppl 1 2004 2628 2631 (Pubitemid 39458354)
74. SHEP Cooperative Research Group Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension. Final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). SHEP Cooperative Research Group JAMA 265 24 1991 3255 3264
75. F. Forette, M.L. Seux, J.A. Staessen, L. Thijs, M.R. Babarskiene, and S. Babeanu et al. The prevention of dementia with antihypertensive treatment: new evidence from the Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) study Arch Intern Med 162 18 2002 2046 2052 (Pubitemid 35168212)
76. H. Lithell, L. Hansson, I. Skoog, D. Elmfeldt, A. Hofman, and B. Olofsson et al. The study on Cognition and Prognosis in the Elderly (SCOPE): principal results of a randomized double-blind intervention trial J Hypertens 21 5 2003 875 886 (Pubitemid 36677151)
77. R. Peters, E. Pinto, N. Beckett, C. Swift, J. Potter, and T. McCormack et al. Association of depression with subsequent mortality, cardiovascular morbidity and incident dementia in people aged 80 and over and suffering from hypertension. Data from the Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial (HYVET) Age Ageing 39 4 2010 439 445
78. M.J. Prince, A.S. Bird, R.A. Blizard, and A.H. Mann Is the cognitive function of older patients affected by antihypertensive treatment? Results from 54 months of the Medical Research Council's trial of hypertension in older adults BMJ 312 7034 1996 801 805 (Pubitemid 26099297)
79. C. Tzourio, C. Anderson, N. Chapman, M. Woodward, B. Neal, and S. MacMahon et al. Effects of blood pressure lowering with perindopril and indapamide therapy on dementia and cognitive decline in patients with cerebrovascular disease Arch Intern Med 163 9 2003 1069 1075 (Pubitemid 36548935)
80. J.M. Starr, L.J. Whalley, and I.J. Deary The effects of antihypertensive treatment on cognitive function: results from the HOPE study J Am Geriatr Soc 44 4 1996 411 415 (Pubitemid 26115555)
81. C.L. Leibson, W.A. Rocca, V.A. Hanson, R. Cha, E. Kokmen, and P.C. O'Brien et al. The risk of dementia among persons with diabetes mellitus: a population-based cohort study Ann NY Acad Sci 826 1997 422 427 (Pubitemid 27478066)
82. J.A. Luchsinger, M.X. Tang, Y. Stern, S. Shea, and R. Mayeux Diabetes mellitus and risk of Alzheimer's disease and dementia with stroke in a multiethnic cohort Am J Epidemiol 154 7 2001 635 641 (Pubitemid 32888781)
83. J.A. Luchsinger Adiposity, hyperinsulinemia, diabetes and Alzheimer's disease: an epidemiological perspective Eur J Pharmacol 585 1 2008 119 129
84. R.L. Sacco, E.J. Benjamin, J.P. Broderick, M. Dyken, J.D. Easton, and W.M. Feinberg et al. American Heart Association Prevention Conference. IV. Prevention and Rehabilitation of Stroke. Risk factors Stroke 28 7 1997 1507 1517
85. Z. Arvanitakis, J.A. Schneider, R.S. Wilson, Y. Li, S.E. Arnold, and Z. Wang et al. Diabetes is related to cerebral infarction but not to AD pathology in older persons Neurology 67 11 2006 1960 1965 (Pubitemid 44967371)
86. A. Festa, K. Williams, R. D'Agostino Jr., L.E. Wagenknecht, and S.M. Haffner The natural course of beta-cell function in nondiabetic and diabetic individuals: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study Diabetes 55 4 2006 1114 1120 (Pubitemid 44100189)
87. G.S. Watson, E.R. Peskind, S. Asthana, K. Purganan, C. Wait, and D. Chapman et al. Insulin increases CSF Abeta42 levels in normal older adults Neurology 60 12 2003 1899 1903 (Pubitemid 36736003)
88. W. Farris, S. Mansourian, Y. Chang, L. Lindsley, E.A. Eckman, and M.P. Frosch et al. Insulin-degrading enzyme regulates the levels of insulin, amyloid beta-protein, and the beta-amyloid precursor protein intracellular domain in vivo PNAS 100 7 2003 4162 4167 (Pubitemid 36418174)
89. C.R. Park Cognitive effects of insulin in the central nervous system Neurosci Biobehav Rev 25 4 2001 311 323 (Pubitemid 32624374)
90. D.R. Gustafson, K. Backman, M. Waern, S. Ostling, X. Guo, and P. Zandi et al. Adiposity indicators and dementia over 32 years in Sweden Neurology 73 19 2009 1559 1566
91. G. Razay, and A. Vreugdenhil Obesity in middle age and future risk of dementia: midlife obesity increases risk of future dementia BMJ 331 7514 2005 455 Author reply
92. R. Stewart, K. Masaki, Q.L. Xue, R. Peila, H. Petrovitch, and L.R. White et al. A 32-year prospective study of change in body weight and incident dementia: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study Arch Neurol 62 1 2005 55 60 (Pubitemid 40105036)
93. R.A. Whitmer, D.R. Gustafson, E. Barrett-Connor, M.N. Haan, E.P. Gunderson, and K. Yaffe Central obesity and increased risk of dementia more than three decades later Neurology 71 14 2008 1057 1064
94. Y.M. Kuo, M.R. Emmerling, C.L. Bisgaier, A.D. Essenburg, H.C. Lampert, and D. Drumm et al. Elevated low-density lipoprotein in Alzheimer's disease correlates with brain abeta 1-42 levels Biochem Biophys Res Commun 252 3 1998 711 715 (Pubitemid 28556841)
95. M. Michikawa Cholesterol paradox: is high total or low HDL cholesterol level a risk for Alzheimer's disease? J Neurosci Res 72 2 2003 141 146 (Pubitemid 36389880)
96. T.J. Muckle, and J.R. Roy High-density lipoprotein cholesterol in differential diagnosis of senile dementia Lancet 1 8439 1985 1191 1193 (Pubitemid 15083674)
97. C. Raffaitin, H. Gin, J.P. Empana, C. Helmer, C. Berr, and C. Tzourio et al. Metabolic syndrome and risk for incident Alzheimer's disease or vascular dementia: the Three-City Study Diabetes Care 32 1 2009 169 174
98. Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging Working Group V. Solfrizzi, E. Scafato, C. Capurso, A. D'Introno, A.M. Colacicco, and V. Frisardi et al. Metabolic syndrome, mild cognitive impairment, and progression to dementia. The Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging Neurobiol Aging 32 11 2011 1932 1941
99. K. Yaffe, A.L. Weston, T. Blackwell, and K.A. Krueger The metabolic syndrome and development of cognitive impairment among older women Arch Neurol 66 3 2009 324 328
100. L. Ferini-Strambi, S. Smirne, P. Garancini, P. Pinto, and M. Franceschi Clinical and epidemiological aspects of Alzheimer's disease with presenile onset: a case control study Neuroepidemiology 9 1 1990 39 49 (Pubitemid 20127677)
101. S.L. Tyas Are tobacco and alcohol use related to Alzheimer's disease? A critical assessment of the evidence and its implications Addict Biol 1 3 1996 237
102. L.J. Launer, E.J. Feskens, S. Kalmijn, and D. Kromhout Smoking, drinking, and thinking: the Zutphen Elderly Study Am J Epidemiol 143 3 1996 219
103. C. Merchant, M.X. Tang, S. Albert, J. Manly, Y. Stern, and R. Mayeux The influence of smoking on the risk of Alzheimer's disease Neurology 52 7 1999 1408
104. A. Ott, A.J. Slooter, A. Hofman, F. van Harskamp, J.C. Witteman, and C. Van Broeckhoven et al. Smoking and risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based cohort study: the Rotterdam Study Lancet 351 9119 1998 1840
105. P.K. Elias, M.F. Elias, M.A. Robbins, and M.M. Budge Blood pressure-related cognitive decline: does age make a difference? Hypertension 44 5 2004 631 636 (Pubitemid 39435231)
106. L.E. Hebert, P.A. Scherr, L.A. Beckett, H.H. Funkenstein, M.S. Albert, and M.J. Chown et al. Relation of smoking and alcohol consumption to incident Alzheimer's disease Am J Epidemiol 135 4 1992 347 355
107. J.K. Cataldo, J.J. Prochaska, and S.A. Glantz Cigarette smoking is a risk factor for Alzheimer's Disease: an analysis controlling for tobacco industry affiliation J Alzheimers Dis 19 2 2010 465 480 10.3233/JAD-2010-1240
108. M.G. Traber, A. van der Vliet, A.Z. Reznick, and C.E. Cross Tobacco-related diseases. Is there a role for antioxidant micronutrient supplementation? Clin Chest Med 21 1 2000 173 187 x (Pubitemid 30183781)
109. R. Mayeux, R. Ottman, G. Maestre, C. Ngai, M.X. Tang, and H. Ginsberg et al. Synergistic effects of traumatic head injury and apolipoprotein-epsilon 4 in patients with Alzheimer's disease Neurology 45 3 Pt 1 1995 555 557
110. D.X. Rasmusson, J. Brandt, D.B. Martin, and M.F. Folstein Head injury as a risk factor in Alzheimer's disease Brain Inj 9 3 1995 213 219
111. P.W. Schofield, M. Tang, K. Marder, K. Bell, G. Dooneief, and M. Chun et al. Alzheimer's disease after remote head injury: an incidence study J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 62 2 1997 119 124 (Pubitemid 27090929)
112. S. Fleminger, D.L. Oliver, S. Lovestone, S. Rabe-Hesketh, and A. Giora Head injury as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: the evidence 10 years on; a partial replication J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74 7 2003 857 862 (Pubitemid 36782983)
113. J.A. Mortimer, C.M. van Duijn, V. Chandra, L. Fratiglioni, A.B. Graves, and A. Heyman et al. Head trauma as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: a collaborative re-analysis of case-control studies. EURODEM Risk Factors Research Group Int J Epidemiol 20 Suppl 2 1991 S28 S35
114. Z. Guo, L.A. Cupples, A. Kurz, S.H. Auerbach, L. Volicer, and H. Chui et al. Head injury and the risk of AD in the MIRAGE study Neurology 54 6 2000 1316 1323 (Pubitemid 30174053)
115. K.M. Mehta, A. Ott, S. Kalmijn, A.J. Slooter, C.M. van Duijn, and A. Hofman et al. Head trauma and risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: the Rotterdam Study Neurology 53 9 1999 1959 1962
116. B.L. Plassman, R.J. Havlik, D.C. Steffens, M.J. Helms, T.N. Newman, and D. Drosdick et al. Documented head injury in early adulthood and risk of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias Neurology 55 8 2000 1158 1166
117. R.E. Hartman, H. Laurer, L. Longhi, K.R. Bales, S.M. Paul, and T.K. McIntosh et al. Apolipoprotein E4 influences amyloid deposition but not cell loss after traumatic brain injury in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease J Neurosci 22 23 2002 10083 10087 (Pubitemid 35416846)
118. G. Franz, R. Beer, A. Kampfl, K. Engelhardt, E. Schmutzhard, and H. Ulmer et al. Amyloid beta 1-42 and tau in cerebrospinal fluid after severe traumatic brain injury Neurology 60 9 2003 1457 1461 (Pubitemid 36554806)
119. N. Scarmeas, Y. Stern, R. Mayeux, J.J. Manly, N. Schupf, and J.A. Luchsinger Mediterranean diet and mild cognitive impairment Arch Neurol 66 2 2009 216 225
120. Y. Gu, J.W. Nieves, Y. Stern, J.A. Luchsinger, and N. Scarmeas Food combination and Alzheimer disease risk: a protective diet Arch Neurol 67 6 2010 699 706
121. N. Scarmeas, J.A. Luchsinger, N. Schupf, A.M. Brickman, S. Cosentino, and M.X. Tang et al. Physical activity, diet, and risk of Alzheimer disease JAMA 302 6 2009 627 637
122. N. Scarmeas, Y. Stern, R. Mayeux, and J.A. Luchsinger Mediterranean diet, Alzheimer disease, and vascular mediation Arch Neurol 63 12 2006 1709 1717 (Pubitemid 44925078)
123. S. Nagano, X. Huang, R.D. Moir, S.M. Payton, R.E. Tanzi, and A.I. Bush Peroxidase activity of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) cross-links beta-amyloid (Abeta) and generates Abeta-COX-2 hetero-oligomers that are increased in Alzheimer's disease J Biol Chem 279 15 2004 14673 14678 (Pubitemid 38618856)
124. D.A. Butterfield, A. Castegna, J. Drake, G. Scapagnini, and V. Calabrese Vitamin E and neurodegenerative disorders associated with oxidative stress Nutr Neurosci 5 4 2002 229 239 (Pubitemid 34823459)
125. S.S. Pitchumoni, and P.M. Doraiswamy Current status of antioxidant therapy for Alzheimer's disease J Am Geriatr Soc 46 12 1998 1566 1572 (Pubitemid 28551206)
126. J.H. Weisburger Vitamin C and prevention of nitrosamine formation Lancet 2 8038 1977 607 (Pubitemid 8176617)
127. B. Pardo, M.A. Mena, S. Fahn, and J. Garcia de Yebenes Ascorbic acid protects against levodopa-induced neurotoxicity on a catecholamine-rich human neuroblastoma cell line Mov Disord 8 3 1993 278 284 (Pubitemid 23212535)
128. Z. Voko, M. Hollander, A. Hofman, P.J. Koudstaal, and M.M. Breteler Dietary antioxidants and the risk of ischemic stroke: the Rotterdam Study Neurology 61 9 2003 1273 1275 (Pubitemid 37377554)
129. P.C. Calder Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and immunity Lipids 36 9 2001 1007 1024 (Pubitemid 33065203)
130. S. Yehuda, S. Rabinovitz, R.L. Carasso, and D.I. Mostofsky The role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in restoring the aging neuronal membrane Neurobiol Aging 23 5 2002 843 853 (Pubitemid 35217710)
131. M.J. Engelhart, M.I. Geerlings, A. Ruitenberg, J.C. Van Swieten, A. Hofman, and J.C. Witteman et al. Diet and risk of dementia: does fat matter?: the Rotterdam Study Neurology 59 12 2002 1915 1921 (Pubitemid 36076564)
132. M.J. Engelhart, M.I. Geerlings, A. Ruitenberg, J.C. van Swieten, A. Hofman, and J.C. Witteman et al. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of Alzheimer disease JAMA 287 24 2002 3223 3229 (Pubitemid 34686103)
133. K.H. Masaki, K.G. Losonczy, G. Izmirlian, D.J. Foley, G.W. Ross, and H. Petrovitch et al. Association of vitamin E and C supplement use with cognitive function and dementia in elderly men Neurology 54 6 2000 1265 1272 (Pubitemid 30174045)
134. M.C. Morris, D.A. Evans, C.C. Tangney, J.L. Bienias, and R.S. Wilson Fish consumption and cognitive decline with age in a large community study Arch Neurol 62 12 2005 1849 1853 (Pubitemid 41785078)
135. T.L. Huang, P.P. Zandi, K.L. Tucker, A.L. Fitzpatrick, L.H. Kuller, and L.P. Fried et al. Benefits of fatty fish on dementia risk are stronger for those without APOE epsilon4 Neurology 65 9 2005 1409 1414 (Pubitemid 41552771)
136. D. Laurin, K.H. Masaki, D.J. Foley, L.R. White, and L.J. Launer Midlife dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of late-life incident dementia: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study Am J Epidemiol 159 10 2004 959 967 (Pubitemid 38608273)
137. J.A. Luchsinger, M.X. Tang, S. Shea, and R. Mayeux Antioxidant vitamin intake and risk of Alzheimer disease Arch Neurol 60 2 2003 203 208 (Pubitemid 36193963)
138. S. Kalmijn, L.J. Launer, A. Ott, J.C. Witteman, A. Hofman, and M.M. Breteler Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam Study Ann Neurol 42 5 1997 776 782 (Pubitemid 27481550)
139. R.O. Roberts, J.R. Cerhan, Y.E. Geda, D.S. Knopman, R.H. Cha, and T.J. Christianson et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and reduced odds of MCI: the Mayo Clinic Study of Aging J Alzheimers Dis 21 3 2010 853 865
140. E.J. Schaefer, V. Bongard, A.S. Beiser, S. Lamon-Fava, S.J. Robins, and R. Au et al. Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Heart Study Arch Neurol 63 11 2006 1545 1550 (Pubitemid 44748796)
141. V. Solfrizzi, A.M. Colacicco, A. D'Introno, C. Capurso, F. Torres, and C. Rizzo et al. Dietary intake of unsaturated fatty acids and age-related cognitive decline: a 8.5-year follow-up of the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging Neurobiol Aging 27 11 2006 1694 1704 (Pubitemid 44363108)
142. J.H. Kang, N. Cook, J. Manson, J.E. Buring, and F. Grodstein A randomized trial of vitamin E supplementation and cognitive function in women Arch Intern Med 166 22 2006 2462 2468 (Pubitemid 44913230)
143. R.C. Petersen, R.G. Thomas, M. Grundman, D. Bennett, R. Doody, and S. Ferris et al. Vitamin E and donepezil for the treatment of mild cognitive impairment N Engl J Med 352 23 2005 2379 2388 (Pubitemid 40958434)
144. M. Sano, C. Ernesto, R.G. Thomas, M.R. Klauber, K. Schafer, and M. Grundman et al. A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study N Engl J Med 336 17 1997 1216 1222 (Pubitemid 27183651)
145. K. Yaffe, T.E. Clemons, W.L. McBee, and A.S. Lindblad Impact of antioxidants, zinc, and copper on cognition in the elderly: a randomized, controlled trial Neurology 63 9 2004 1705 1707 (Pubitemid 39507595)
146. C.C. Chiu, K.P. Su, T.C. Cheng, H.C. Liu, C.J. Chang, and M.E. Dewey et al. The effects of omega-3 fatty acids monotherapy in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: a preliminary randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 32 6 2008 1538 1544
147. Y. Freund-Levi, M. Eriksdotter-Jonhagen, T. Cederholm, H. Basun, G. Faxen-Irving, and A. Garlind et al. Omega-3 fatty acid treatment in 174 patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: OmegAD study: a randomized double-blind trial Arch Neurol 63 10 2006 1402 1408 (Pubitemid 44547551)
148. R.D. Abbott, L.R. White, G.W. Ross, K.H. Masaki, J.D. Curb, and H. Petrovitch Walking and dementia in physically capable elderly men JAMA 292 12 2004 1447 1453 (Pubitemid 39258337)
149. L. Fratiglioni, S. Paillard-Borg, and B. Winblad An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia Lancet Neurol 3 6 2004 343 353 (Pubitemid 38648855)
150. S. Rovio, I. Kareholt, E.L. Helkala, M. Viitanen, B. Winblad, and J. Tuomilehto et al. Leisure-time physical activity at midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease Lancet Neurol 4 11 2005 705 711 (Pubitemid 41457285)
151. N. Scarmeas, G. Levy, M.X. Tang, J. Manly, and Y. Stern Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease Neurology 57 12 2001 2236 2242 (Pubitemid 34016457)
152. J. Verghese, R.B. Lipton, M.J. Katz, C.B. Hall, C.A. Derby, and G. Kuslansky et al. Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly N Engl J Med 348 25 2003 2508 2516 (Pubitemid 36706538)
153. C.F. Emery, R.L. Schein, E.R. Hauck, and N.R. MacIntyre Psychological and cognitive outcomes of a randomized trial of exercise among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Health Psychol 17 3 1998 232 240 (Pubitemid 28277116)
154. C. Fabre, K. Chamari, P. Mucci, J. Masse-Biron, and C. Prefaut Improvement of cognitive function by mental and/or individualized aerobic training in healthy elderly subjects Int J Sports Med 23 6 2002 415 421 (Pubitemid 35007079)
155. A.F. Kramer, K.I. Erickson, and S.J. Colcombe Exercise, cognition, and the aging brain J Appl Physiol 101 4 2006 1237 1242 (Pubitemid 44497569)
156. N.T. Lautenschlager, K.L. Cox, L. Flicker, J.K. Foster, F.M. van Bockxmeer, and J. Xiao et al. Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at risk for Alzheimer disease: a randomized trial JAMA 300 9 2008 1027 1037
157. R.K. Dishman, H.R. Berthoud, F.W. Booth, C.W. Cotman, V.R. Edgerton, and M.R. Fleshner et al. Neurobiology of exercise Obesity (Silver Spring) 14 3 2006 345 356 (Pubitemid 46219751)
158. M.C. Carlson, M.J. Helms, D.C. Steffens, J.R. Burke, G.G. Potter, and B.L. Plassman Midlife activity predicts risk of dementia in older male twin pairs Alzheimer's Dement 4 5 2008 324 331
159. D. Scheuner, C. Eckman, M. Jensen, X. Song, M. Citron, and N. Suzuki et al. Secreted amyloid beta-protein similar to that in the senile plaques of Alzheimer's disease is increased in vivo by the presenilin 1 and 2 and APP mutations linked to familial Alzheimer's disease Nat Med 2 8 1996 864 870 (Pubitemid 26296755)
160. T. Kosaka, M. Imagawa, K. Seki, H. Arai, H. Sasaki, and S. Tsuji et al. The beta APP717 Alzheimer mutation increases the percentage of plasma amyloid-beta protein ending at A beta42(43) Neurology 48 3 1997 741 745 (Pubitemid 27120117)
161. N. Schupf, B. Patel, W. Silverman, W.B. Zigman, N. Zhong, and B. Tycko et al. Elevated plasma amyloid beta-peptide 1-42 and onset of dementia in adults with Down syndrome Neurosci Lett 301 3 2001 199 203 (Pubitemid 32226434)
162. R. Mayeux, M.X. Tang, D.M. Jacobs, J. Manly, K. Bell, and C. Merchant et al. Plasma amyloid beta-peptide 1-42 and incipient Alzheimer's disease Ann Neurol 46 3 1999 412 416 (Pubitemid 29416281)
163. M. van Oijen, A. Hofman, H.D. Soares, P.J. Koudstaal, and M.M. Breteler Plasma Abeta (1-40) and Abeta (1-42) and the risk of dementia: a prospective case-cohort study Lancet Neurol 5 8 2006 655 660 (Pubitemid 44062411)
164. O. Hansson, H. Zetterberg, P. Buchhave, U. Andreasson, E. Londos, and L. Minthon et al. Prediction of Alzheimer's disease using the CSF Abeta42/Abeta40 ratio in patients with mild cognitive impairment Dement Geriatr Cognit Disord 23 5 2007 316 320 (Pubitemid 46631938)
165. M. Ewers, Z. Zhong, K. Burger, A. Wallin, K. Blennow, and S.J. Teipel et al. Increased CSF-BACE 1 activity is associated with ApoE-epsilon 4 genotype in subjects with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease Brain 131 Pt 5 2008 1252 1258
166. K. Hoglund, O. Hansson, P. Buchhave, H. Zetterberg, P. Lewczuk, and E. Londos et al. Prediction of Alzheimer's disease using a cerebrospinal fluid pattern of C-terminally truncated beta-amyloid peptides Neurodegener Dis 5 5 2008 268 276 (Pubitemid 351787049)
167. A.M. Fagan, M.A. Mintun, R.H. Mach, S.Y. Lee, C.S. Dence, and A.R. Shah et al. Inverse relation between in vivo amyloid imaging load and cerebrospinal fluid Abeta42 in humans Ann Neurol 59 3 2006 512 519 (Pubitemid 43358072)
168. K. Buerger, M. Ewers, T. Pirttila, R. Zinkowski, I. Alafuzoff, and S.J. Teipel et al. CSF phosphorylated tau protein correlates with neocortical neurofibrillary pathology in Alzheimer's disease Brain 129 Pt 11 2006 3035 3041 (Pubitemid 44684523)
169. K. Buerger, I. Alafuzoff, M. Ewers, T. Pirttila, R. Zinkowski, and H. Hampel No correlation between CSF tau protein phosphorylated at threonine 181 with neocortical neurofibrillary pathology in Alzheimer's disease Brain 130 Pt 10 2007 e82
170. S. Engelborghs, K. Sleegers, P. Cras, N. Brouwers, S. Serneels, and E. De Leenheir et al. No association of CSF biomarkers with APOEepsilon4, plaque and tangle burden in definite Alzheimer's disease Brain 130 Pt 9 2007 2320 2326 (Pubitemid 47327622)
171. H. Fukumoto, M. Tennis, J.J. Locascio, B.T. Hyman, J.H. Growdon, and M.C. Irizarry Age but not diagnosis is the main predictor of plasma amyloid beta-protein levels Arch Neurol 60 7 2003 958 964 (Pubitemid 36858355)
172. M. Shafaati, A. Solomon, M. Kivipelto, I. Bjorkhem, and V. Leoni Levels of ApoE in cerebrospinal fluid are correlated with tau and 24S- hydroxycholesterol in patients with cognitive disorders Neurosci Lett 425 2 2007 78 82 (Pubitemid 47410361)
173. B. Schmand, H.M. Huizenga, and W.A. van Gool Meta-analysis of CSF and MRI biomarkers for detecting preclinical Alzheimer's disease Psychol Med 40 1 2010 135 145
174. S.J. Teipel, M.B. Schapiro, G.E. Alexander, J.S. Krasuski, B. Horwitz, and C. Hoehne et al. Relation of corpus callosum and hippocampal size to age in nondemented adults with Down's syndrome Am J Psychiatry 160 10 2003 1870 1878 (Pubitemid 41103323)
175. G. Karas, P. Scheltens, S. Rombouts, R. van Schijndel, M. Klein, and B. Jones et al. Precuneus atrophy in early-onset Alzheimer's disease: a morphometric structural MRI study Neuroradiology 49 12 2007 967 976 (Pubitemid 350159837)
176. D. Mungas, D. Harvey, B.R. Reed, W.J. Jagust, C. DeCarli, and L. Beckett et al. Longitudinal volumetric MRI change and rate of cognitive decline Neurology 65 4 2005 565 571 (Pubitemid 41170716)
177. L.G. Apostolova, R.A. Dutton, I.D. Dinov, K.M. Hayashi, A.W. Toga, and J.L. Cummings et al. Conversion of mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer disease predicted by hippocampal atrophy maps Arch Neurol 63 5 2006 693 699
178. G. Chetelat, B. Landeau, F. Eustache, F. Mezenge, F. Viader, and V. de la Sayette et al. Using voxel-based morphometry to map the structural changes associated with rapid conversion in MCI: a longitudinal MRI study NeuroImage 27 4 2005 934 946 (Pubitemid 41317262)
179. M. Likeman, V.M. Anderson, J.M. Stevens, A.D. Waldman, A.K. Godbolt, and C. Frost et al. Visual assessment of atrophy on magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of pathologically confirmed young-onset dementias Arch Neurol 62 9 2005 1410 1415 (Pubitemid 41352058)
180. S.E. Rose, F. Chen, J.B. Chalk, F.O. Zelaya, W.E. Strugnell, and M. Benson et al. Loss of connectivity in Alzheimer's disease: an evaluation of white matter tract integrity with colour coded MR diffusion tensor imaging J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 69 4 2000 528 530
181. G.T. Stebbins, and C.M. Murphy Diffusion tensor imaging in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment Behav Neurol 21 1 2009 39 49
182. Y. Zhang, N. Schuff, G.H. Jahng, W. Bayne, S. Mori, and L. Schad et al. Diffusion tensor imaging of cingulum fibers in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease Neurology 68 1 2007 13 19 (Pubitemid 46058544)
183. D. Medina, L. DeToledo-Morrell, F. Urresta, J.D. Gabrieli, M. Moseley, and D. Fleischman et al. White matter changes in mild cognitive impairment and AD: a diffusion tensor imaging study Neurobiol Aging 27 5 2006 663 672
184. A. Fellgiebel, P. Wille, M.J. Muller, G. Winterer, A. Scheurich, and G. Vucurevic et al. Ultrastructural hippocampal and white matter alterations in mild cognitive impairment: a diffusion tensor imaging study Dement Geriatr Cognit Disord 18 1 2004 101 108 (Pubitemid 38822746)
185. J.M. Ringman, S.G. Younkin, D. Pratico, W. Seltzer, G.M. Cole, and D.H. Geschwind et al. Biochemical markers in persons with preclinical familial Alzheimer disease Neurology 71 2 2008 85 92
186. D.C. Alsop, J.A. Detre, and M. Grossman Assessment of cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer's disease by spin-labeled magnetic resonance imaging Ann Neurol 47 1 2000 93 100 (Pubitemid 30033655)
187. Y. Chen, D.A. Wolk, J.S. Reddin, M. Korczykowski, P.M. Martinez, and E.S. Musiek et al. Voxel-level comparison of arterial spin-labeled perfusion MRI and FDG-PET in Alzheimer disease Neurology 77 22 2011 1977 1985
188. N.A. Johnson, G.H. Jahng, M.W. Weiner, B.L. Miller, H.C. Chui, and W.J. Jagust et al. Pattern of cerebral hypoperfusion in Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment measured with arterial spin-labeling MR imaging: initial experience Radiology 234 3 2005 851 859 (Pubitemid 40250829)
189. L.L. Chao, N. Schuff, J.H. Kramer, A.T. Du, A.A. Capizzano, and J. O'Neill et al. Reduced medial temporal lobe N-acetylaspartate in cognitively impaired but nondemented patients Neurology 64 2 2005 282 289
190. R. Sperling Potential of functional MRI as a biomarker in early Alzheimer's disease Neurobiol Aging 32 Suppl 1 2011 S37 S43
191. K.A. Celone, V.D. Calhoun, B.C. Dickerson, A. Atri, E.F. Chua, and S.L. Miller et al. Alterations in memory networks in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: an independent component analysis J Neurosci 26 40 2006 10222 10231 (Pubitemid 44527415)
192. B.C. Dickerson, D.H. Salat, D.N. Greve, E.F. Chua, E. Rand-Giovannetti, and D.M. Rentz et al. Increased hippocampal activation in mild cognitive impairment compared to normal aging and AD Neurology 65 3 2005 404 411 (Pubitemid 41099803)
193. A. Golby, G. Silverberg, E. Race, S. Gabrieli, J. O'Shea, and K. Knierim et al. Memory encoding in Alzheimer's disease: an fMRI study of explicit and implicit memory Brain 128 Pt 4 2005 773 787 (Pubitemid 40516915)
194. S.A. Rombouts, F. Barkhof, R. Goekoop, C.J. Stam, and P. Scheltens Altered resting state networks in mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimer's disease: an fMRI study Hum Brain Mapp 26 4 2005 231 239 (Pubitemid 41759880)
195. M.D. Greicius, G. Srivastava, A.L. Reiss, and V. Menon Default-mode network activity distinguishes Alzheimer's disease from healthy aging: evidence from functional MRI PNAS 101 13 2004 4637 4642 (Pubitemid 38437463)
196. C. Sorg, V. Riedl, M. Muhlau, V.D. Calhoun, T. Eichele, and L. Laer et al. Selective changes of resting-state networks in individuals at risk for Alzheimer's disease PNAS 104 47 2007 18760 18765 (Pubitemid 350210770)
197. A.S. Fleisher, A. Sherzai, C. Taylor, J.B. Langbaum, K. Chen, and R.B. Buxton Resting-state BOLD networks versus task-associated functional MRI for distinguishing Alzheimer's disease risk groups NeuroImage 47 4 2009 1678 1690
198. A. Venneri, W.J. McGeown, and M.F. Shanks Responders to ChEI treatment of Alzheimer's disease show restitution of normal regional cortical activation Curr Alzheimer Res 6 2 2009 97 111
199. P. Bentley, J. Driver, and R.J. Dolan Cholinesterase inhibition modulates visual and attentional brain responses in Alzheimer's disease and health Brain 131 Pt 2 2008 409 424 (Pubitemid 351197610)
200. J.S. Goveas, C. Xie, B.D. Ward, Z. Wu, W. Li, and M. Franczak et al. Recovery of hippocampal network connectivity correlates with cognitive improvement in mild Alzheimer's disease patients treated with donepezil assessed by resting-state fMRI J Magn Reson Imaging 34 4 2011 764 773
201. K. Shoghi-Jadid, G.W. Small, E.D. Agdeppa, V. Kepe, L.M. Ercoli, and P. Siddarth et al. Localization of neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques in the brains of living patients with Alzheimer disease Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 10 1 2002 24 35 (Pubitemid 34052900)
202. J. Shin, V. Kepe, J.R. Barrio, and G.W. Small The merits of FDDNP-PET imaging in Alzheimer's disease J Alzheimer's Dis 26 Suppl 3 2011 135 145
203. G.W. Small, V. Kepe, L.M. Ercoli, P. Siddarth, S.Y. Bookheimer, and K.J. Miller et al. PET of brain amyloid and tau in mild cognitive impairment N Engl J Med 355 25 2006 2652 2663 (Pubitemid 44969124)
204. P. Edison, H.A. Archer, A. Gerhard, R. Hinz, N. Pavese, and F.E. Turkheimer et al. Microglia, amyloid, and cognition in Alzheimer's disease: An [11C](R)PK11195-PET and [11C]PIB-PET study Neurobiol Dis 32 3 2008 412 419
205. W.E. Klunk, H. Engler, A. Nordberg, Y. Wang, G. Blomqvist, and D.P. Holt et al. Imaging brain amyloid in Alzheimer's disease with Pittsburgh compound-B Ann Neurol 55 3 2004 306 319 (Pubitemid 38269583)
206. C.C. Rowe, S. Ng, U. Ackermann, S.J. Gong, K. Pike, and G. Savage et al. Imaging beta-amyloid burden in aging and dementia Neurology 68 20 2007 1718 1725 (Pubitemid 46763260)
207. W.J. Jagust, S.M. Landau, L.M. Shaw, J.Q. Trojanowski, R.A. Koeppe, and E.M. Reiman et al. Relationships between biomarkers in aging and dementia Neurology 73 15 2009 1193 1199
208. 18F) in patients with Alzheimer's disease and healthy controls: a multicentre phase 2 diagnostic study Lancet Neurol 10 5 2011 424 435
209. 18F-AV-45 (florbetapir) to quantify brain amyloid load in a clinical environment Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 39 4 2012 621 631
210. S.M. Landau, D. Harvey, C.M. Madison, R.A. Koeppe, E.M. Reiman, and N.L. Foster et al. Associations between cognitive, functional, and FDG-PET measures of decline in AD and MCI Neurobiol Aging 32 7 2011 1207 1218
211. J.B. Langbaum, K. Chen, W. Lee, C. Reschke, D. Bandy, and A.S. Fleisher et al. Categorical and correlational analyses of baseline fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography images from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) NeuroImage 45 4 2009 1107 1116
212. E. Arnaiz, V. Jelic, O. Almkvist, L.O. Wahlund, B. Winblad, and S. Valind et al. Impaired cerebral glucose metabolism and cognitive functioning predict deterioration in mild cognitive impairment NeuroReport 12 4 2001 851 855 (Pubitemid 32222729)
213. A. Drzezga, M. Riemenschneider, B. Strassner, T. Grimmer, M. Peller, and A. Knoll et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism in patients with AD and different APOE genotypes Neurology 64 1 2005 102 107 (Pubitemid 40082944)
214. D.H. Silverman, G.W. Small, C.Y. Chang, C.S. Lu, M.A. Kung De Aburto, and W. Chen et al. Positron emission tomography in evaluation of dementia: regional brain metabolism and long-term outcome JAMA 286 17 2001 2120 2127 (Pubitemid 34041597)
215. T. Dashjamts, T. Yoshiura, A. Hiwatashi, K. Yamashita, A. Monji, and Y. Ohyagi et al. Simultaneous arterial spin labeling cerebral blood flow and morphological assessments for detection of Alzheimer's disease Acad Radiol 18 12 2011 1492 1499
216. S. Lang The role of peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBRs) in CNS pathophysiology Curr Med Chem 9 15 2002 1411 1415 (Pubitemid 34823023)
217. 11C-(R)-PK11195 in patients with Alzheimer's disease J Nucl Med 49 8 2008 1249 1256
218. A. Okello, P. Edison, H.A. Archer, F.E. Turkheimer, J. Kennedy, and R. Bullock et al. Microglial activation and amyloid deposition in mild cognitive impairment: a PET study Neurology 72 1 2009 56 62
219. J.L. Cummings, C. Henchcliffe, S. Schaier, T. Simuni, A. Waxman, and P. Kemp The role of dopaminergic imaging in patients with symptoms of dopaminergic system neurodegeneration Brain 134 Pt 11 2011 3146 3166
220. S.J. Colloby, S. McParland, J.T. O'Brien, and J. Attems Neuropathological correlates of dopaminergic imaging in Alzheimer's disease and Lewy body dementias Brain 135 Pt 9 2012 2798 2808
221. 123I-5IA-85380 single photon emission computed tomography as a predictor of cognitive progression in Alzheimer's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 18 1 2010 86 90
222. G.B. Frisoni, M. Bocchetta, G. Chetelat, G.D. Rabinovici, M.J. de Leon, and J. Kaye et al. Imaging markers for Alzheimer disease: which vs how Neurology 81 5 2013 487 500