The Urbanization of the Eastern Gray Squirrel in the United States

Journal of American History

Volumn 100, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 691-710

  Benson, Etienne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84897954006     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: 19452314     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jahist/jat353     Document Type: Article

References (48)

1. Vernon Bailey, “Animals Worth Knowing around the Capitol,” 1934, unpublished manuscript, p.1, folder 5: “Animals Worth Knowing around the National Capitol. Text of a Radio Talk over WRC, July 12, 1934,” box 7, record unit 7267, Vernon Orlando Bailey Papers 1889–1941 and undated (Smithsonian Institution Archives, Washington, D.C.). Vernon Bailey had given a similar radio address in 1926. See Vernon Bailey, “Mammals of the Vicinity of Washington,” Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 16 (no. 16, 1926), 441–45. On Bailey’s socialization as a naturalist, see Robert E. Kohler, “From Farm and Family to Career Naturalist: The Apprenticeship of Vernon Bailey,” Isis, 99 (March 2008), 28–56.
2. For overviews of squirrel biology, see Frederick S. Barkalow Jr. and Monica Shorten, The World of the Gray Squirrel (Philadelphia, 1973); Michael A. Steele and John L. Koprowski, North American Tree Squirrels (Washington, 2001); and Richard W. Thorington Jr. and Katie Ferrell, Squirrels: The Animal Answer Guide (Baltimore, 2006).
3. On the history of animals in American cities, see William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991), 207–61; Matthew Klingle, Emerald City: An Environmental History of Seattle (New Haven, 2007); Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore, 2007); Ted Steinberg, Down to Earth: Nature’s Role in American History (Oxford, 2002), 157–63; and Ann Norton Greene, Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America (Cambridge, Mass., 2008). On animals as historical agents, see Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America (Oxford, 2004); Jon T. Coleman, Vicious: Wolves and Men in America (New Haven, 2004); Erica Fudge, “A Left-Handed Blow: Writing the History of Animals,” in Representing Animals, ed. Nigel Rothfels (Bloomington, 2002), 3–18; S. Eben Kirksey and Stefan Helmreich, “The Emergence of Multispecies Ethnography,” Cultural Anthropology, 25 (Nov. 2010), 545–76; and Susan Pearson and Mary Weismantel, “Does ‘the Animal’ Exist? Toward a Theory of Social Life with Animals,” in Beastly Natures: Animals at the Intersection of Cultural and Environmental History, ed. Dorothee Brantz (Charlottesville, 2010), 17–37. On the city as a distinctive environment for human-animal relations and ethics, see Chris Philo, “Animals, Geography, and the City: Notes on Inclusions and Exclusions,” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 13 (no. 6, 1995), 655–81; Clare Palmer, Animal Ethics in Context (New York, 2010); and Nicholas Holm, “Consider the Squirrel: Freaks, Vermin, and Value in the Ruin(s) of Nature,” Cultural Critique, 80 (Winter 2012), 56–95.
4. On the challenges of reconstructing past animal population numbers, see Yolanda F. Wiersma and John Sandlos, “Once There Were So Many: Animals as Ecological Baselines,” Environmental History, 16 (July 2011), 400–407. For model examples of such reconstructions for historical purposes, see Elinor G. K. Melville, A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico (New York, 1994); and Adam R. Hodge, “‘In Want of Nourishment for to Keep Them Alive’: Climate Fluctuations, Bison Scarcity, and the Smallpox Epidemic of 1780–82 on the Northern Great Plains,” Environmental History, 17 (April 2012), 365–403.
5. Theodore Roosevelt, The Winning of the West, vol. 4: Louisiana and the Northwest, 1791–1807 (New York, 1896), 224; Ernest Thompson Seton, “Migrations of the Graysquirrel (Sciurus carolinensis),” Journal of Mammalogy, 1 (Feb. 1920), 53–58; Barkalow and Shorten, World of the Gray Squirrel, 113.
6. Benjamin Franklin to Georgina Shipley, Sept. 26, 1772, in The Two-Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Franklin Business Association (Franklin, 1906), 106; “New-York City: An Unusual Visitor,” New-York Daily Times, July 4, 1856, p. 6. On keeping squirrels as pets in the United States and Europe, see Katherine C. Grier, Pets in America: A History (Chapel Hill, 2006), 235; Louise E. Robbins, Elephant Slaves and Pampered Parrots: Exotic Animals in Eighteenth-Century Paris (Baltimore, 2002), 27, 118, 128; Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), 18; Harriet Ritvo, “Learning from Animals: Natural History for Children in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” Children’s Literature, 13 (Spring 1985), 72–93, esp. 86; and Paul Staiti, “Character and Class: The Portraits of John Singleton Copley,” in Reading American Art, ed. Marianne Doezema and Elizabeth Milroy (New Haven, 1998), 12–37, esp. 24–25.
7. On Philadelphia’s squirrels, see “The Public Squares,” Philadelphia Public Ledger, May 11, 1847, p. 2; “Philadelphia: Public Squares and Promenades,” New-York Daily Times, June 21, 1853, p. 2; “Our Public Squares,” Philadelphia North American, Aug. 9, 1853, p. 2; Ledyard Lincklaen, “Rural Objects in England and America,” Putnam’s Monthly Magazine of American Literature, Science, and Art, July 1855, p. 36; and S. S. Rathvon, “Birds vs. Squirrels for Public Squares: Report of Committee on Entomology of Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, Submitted June 21,’64,” Gardener’s Monthly and Horticultural Advertiser, 6 (Aug. 1864), 228–32. For the quotation on the tameness of squirrels in Philadelphia, see A. W. C., “Things in Boston—Theodore Parker—Notabilities, &c.,” Massachusetts Circular, Dec. 3, 1857, p. 184. On Boston squirrels, see “Mere Mention,” Home Journal, July 7, 1855, p. 3; “The Surviving Squirrel,” Boston Evening Transcript, July 10, 1855, p. 2; “Editorial Ink Drops,” Flag of Our Union, June 7, 1856, p. 181; and Boston City Council, Documents of the City of Boston for the Year 1857 (2 vols., Boston, 1858), II, 34. On squirrels in New Haven, see “Variety,” Providence Evening Press, Nov. 3, 1865, p. 3; H. W. R., “Yale College,” New York Times, Dec. 17, 1865, p. 2; and Ernest Ingersoll, Wild Neighbors (New York, 1897), 23.
8. On Philadelphia, see “Our Public Squares,” 2. On Jerome V. C. Smith’s release of squirrels in Boston, see “The Squirrels on the Common,” Boston Daily Advertiser, June 22, 1855, p. 1. George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature: Or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action (New York, 1864), 121. On shade trees, see Thomas J. Campanella, Republic of Shade: New England and the American Elm (New Haven, 2003). On the development of Boston Common as a space of leisure, see Michael Rawson, Eden on the Charles: The Making of Boston (Cambridge, Mass., 2010), 22–74. On Mount Auburn Cemetery, see Aaron Sachs, “American Arcadia: Mount Auburn Cemetery and the Nineteenth-Century Landscape Tradition,” Environmental History, 15 (April 2010), 206–35; and Blanche M. G. Linden, Silent City on a Hill: Picturesque Landscapes of Memory and Boston’s Mount Auburn Cemetery (Amherst, Mass., 2007).
9. A. C. W., “Trees for Shade, Ornament, and Profit,” New England Farmer, 15 (May 1863), 145.
10. “Variety,” 3. On complaints about Boston’s squirrels, see “Squirrels on the Common”; Arbores [pseud.], “Squirrels vs. Trees,” Boston Evening Transcript, June 21, 1855, p. 2; “The Mayor and the Chipmunks,” Boston Courier, June 21, 1855, p. 2; and “Squirrels vs. Birds,” Boston Evening Transcript, June 20, 1855, p. 2. On Philadelphia’s squirrels, see Rathvon, “Birds vs. Squirrels for Public Squares”; and Joseph Leidy, “Insects upon Shade Trees,” Friends’ Intelligencer, 29 (no. 23, 1862), 366–68. On the food habits of squirrels, see Thorington and Ferrell, Squirrels, 102–13; and Steele and Koprowksi, North American Tree Squirrels, 37–50.
11. On the elimination of squirrels in Philadelphia, see “American Forests,” Friend, 42 (no. 18, 1868), 107–10. On military exercises on Boston Common during the Civil War, see Friends of the Public Garden, Boston Common (Charleston, 2005), 52. On the disappearance of squirrels in Boston, see Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, Topographical and Historical Description of Boston (Boston, 1871), 339, 373; and Winifred Alden Stearns, “The Utility of Birds in Agriculture and in Migration,” in Annual Report of the Secretary of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture, 1882–83 (Hartford, 1883), 75–109. On dogs and squirrels in New Haven, see H. W. R., “Yale College,” 2.
12. Squirrel nests with young squirrels are described in “Philadelphia,” 2. On squirrel reproduction, see Thorington and Ferrell, Squirrels, 92–101; Barkalow and Shorten, World of the Gray Squirrel, 94–97; and John L. Koprowski, “Sciurus carolinensis,” Mammalian Species, 26 (no. 480, 1994), 1–9, esp. 3. On the likelihood that introduced squirrel populations of various sizes would survive, see David J. A. Wood, John L. Koprowski, and Peter W. W. Lurz, “Tree Squirrel Introduction: A Theoretical Approach with Population Viability Analysis,” Journal of Mammalogy, 88 (no. 5, 2007), 1271–79. On the dispersal of young male squirrels, see Steele and Koprowski, North American Tree Squirrels, 137.
13. John Burroughs, Squirrels and Other Fur-Bearers (Boston, 1900), 7. On urban reform during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Thomas Bender, Toward an Urban Vision: Ideas and Institutions in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore, 1982); James L. Machor, Pastoral Cities: Urban Ideals and the Symbolic Landscape of America (Madison, 1987); William H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore, 1989); Paul S. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920 (Cambridge, Mass., 1992); and David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore, 1998).
14. On the introduction of squirrels to Central Park, see Report of the Director of the Central Park Menagerie, Department of Public Parks, City of New York, for Year Ending December 31, 1878 (New York, 1879), 10; and Report of the Director of the Central Park Menagerie, Department of Public Parks, City of New York, for Year Ending December 31, 1879 (New York, 1880), 10. On William Conklin’s culling proposal, see “A Day of Genial Sunshine,” New York Herald-Tribune, March 19, 1883, p. 8; and “The Balance of Animals,” New York Times, March 23, 1883, p. 4. On the construction of Central Park, see Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca, 1992), 95–210; and Morrison H. Heckscher, Creating Central Park (New York, 2008).
15. “Day of Genial Sunshine,” 8; “Birds and Bears in Central Park,” New York Herald-Tribune, Jan. 19, 1884, p. 8; “A Big Hunt in Central Park,” ibid., Feb. 20, 1886, p. 1; “Squirrels in the City Parks,” New York Times, April 6, 1902, p. SM4; “Squirrels Invade East Side,” ibid., Oct. 3, 1907, p. 4; Seton, “Migrations of the Graysquirrel (Sciurus carolinensis),” 57.
16. “Squirrels in the City Parks.” On squirrels in Washington, D.C., see Janet Burkitt, “Critter City,” Washington Post, Oct. 5, 2008, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/02/AR2008100203233.html. On the white squirrels in Olney, Illinois, see City of Olney, http://www.ci.olney.il.us/.
17. On the creation of the Back Bay neighborhood of Boston, see Nancy S. Seasholes, Gaining Ground: A History of Landmaking in Boston (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), 153–210; William A. Newman and Wilfred E. Holton, Boston’s Back Bay: The Story of America’s Greatest Nineteenth-Century Landfill Project (Lebanon, 2006); Karl Haglund, Inventing the Charles River (Cambridge, Mass., 2002); and Mona Domosh, Invented Cities: The Creation of Landscape in Nineteenth-Century New York and Boston (New Haven, 1996), 99–126. On providing nuts for squirrels on Boston’s Commonwealth Avenue, see “Storehouse for Back Bay Squirrels,” Boston Daily Globe, April 20, 1903, p. 5.
18. On the impact of suburbanization in the United States, see Sam Bass Warner Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Progress of Growth in Boston, 1870–1900 (Cambridge, Mass., 1962); Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985); and James C. O’Connell, “How Metropolitan Parks Shaped Greater Boston, 1893–1945,” in Remaking Boston: An Environmental History of the City and Its Surroundings, ed. Anthony N. Penna and Conrad Edick White (Pittsburgh, 2009), 168–97. On the resilience of connected populations of organisms, see James H. Brown and Astrid Kodric-Brown, “Turnover Rates in Insular Biogeography: Effect of Immigration on Extinction,” Ecology, 58 (March 1977), 445–49.
19. William Brewster, “Squirrels in Cambridge,” Harvard Graduates’ Magazine, 20 (March 1912), 442–48; William Brewster, The Birds of the Cambridge Region of Massachusetts (Cambridge, Mass., 1906), 20. For the observations of William Brewster’s acquaintance, see Journals of William Brewster, March 24, 1900, vol. 17, William Brewster Papers (Special Collections and Archives, Ernst Mayr Library, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.). On gypsy moths, see Robert J. Spear, The Great Gypsy Moth War: The History of the First Campaign in Massachusetts to Eradicate the Gypsy Moth, 1890–1901 (Amherst, Mass., 2005).
20. Vernon Bailey, “Mammals of the District of Columbia,” May 1, 1923, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 1922 and 1923 (Washington, 1923), 103–38. On the effort to import “blackish gray” squirrels, see S. P. Langley to Frank Baker, Nov. 10, 1900, folder 11: “Animals Acquired: Squirrels, 1900,” box 83, record unit 74, National Zoological Park (U.S.) Records 1887–1966 (Smithsonian Institution Archives); and Superintendent to Langley, Nov. 21, 1900, ibid.
21. On the expansion of imported black squirrels in Washington, D.C., see “Black Squirrels,” letter excerpts, Vernon Bailey to Ned Hollister, March 1919, folder 14: “Animals Acquired: Squirrels, 1906–1928,” box 83, record unit 74, National Zoological Park (U.S.) Records; and Thorington and Ferrell, Squirrels, 38–40. On the White House squirrels, see Theodore Roosevelt to Archie Roosevelt, Nov. 27, 1908, in Theodore Roosevelt’s Letters to His Children, ed. Joseph Bucklin Bishop (New York, 1919), 34; and Theodore Roosevelt, “Nature at Home (1905),” in The Green Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt in Appreciation of Wilderness, Wildlife, and Wild Places, ed. Zachary Michael Jack (Amherst, N.Y., 2010), 35–44, esp. 40.
22. “Gray Squirrels in College Yard,” Cambridge (MA) Chronicle, May 17, 1902, p. 17. On infrastructures of waste, power, and transit in the American city (though not from a squirrel’s perspective), see Martin V. Melosi, The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore, 2000); David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880–1940 (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); McShane and Tarr, Horse in the City; and Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier.
23. On the history of the animal rights and humane movements in the United States, see Grier, Pets in America, 127–81; Susan J. Pearson, The Rights of the Defenseless: Protecting Animals and Children in Gilded-Age America (Chicago, 2011); Diane L. Beers, For the Prevention of Cruelty: The History and Legacy of Animal Rights Activism in the United States (Athens, Ohio, 2006); and Jennifer Mason, Civilized Creatures: Urban Animals, Sentimental Culture, and American Literature, 1850–1900 (Baltimore, 2005).
24. On squirrels at Harvard University, see “The Gray Squirrels in Harvard Yard,” Boston Daily Globe, Oct. 25, 1903, p. 45. On squirrels in Central Park, see “Gleanings and Gossip,” Springfield (MA) Republican, Jan. 24, 1902, p. 11. On squirrels at Mount Auburn Cemetery, see Annie C. M. Kimball to Mr. Attwood, Dec. 12, 1902, lot 1894 file, p. 3218, Superintendent’s Copying Book 27 (Mount Auburn Cemetery Archives, Watertown, Mass.); and J. C. Scorgie to Mr. and Mrs. Thomas R. Kimball, Dec. 26, 1902, ibid.
25. On Charles Eliot Norton’s call for acorns, see “The Chronicler,” Cambridge (MA) Chronicle, Dec. 28, 1907, p. 2; “Death Claims Prof. Norton,” Boston Daily Globe, Oct. 21, 1908, p. 1. On William C. McGill’s donation, see “Hickory Nuts for Squirrels,” Our Dumb Animals, 37 (no. 8, 1905), 105. On humane organizations’ distribution of food for animals, see “Pigeons and Squirrels Public’s Pets,” Christian Science Monitor, May 16, 1914, p. 7. On the distribution of authority between municipal government and civil society regarding dog control, see Jessica Wang, “Dogs and the Making of the American State: Voluntary Association, State Power, and the Politics of Animal Control in New York City, 1850–1920,” Journal of American History, 98 (March 2012), 998–1024.
26. On the squirrel feeders in Lafayette Park, see J. Hadidian et al., “Urban Gray Squirrel Damage and Population Management: A Case History,” paper delivered at the Third Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference, Lincoln, Neb., Oct. 18, 1987, http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ewdcc3/19. On the feeders in Central Park, see “Phases of City Life,” New York Times, Jan. 4, 1891, p. 13; and “These Squirrels Get Rich Treats,” New York Herald, Oct. 18, 1893, p. 9.
27. On “the squirrel woman,” see “Lawyer Kills Himself,” New-York Tribune, Feb. 19, 1912, p. 9. On William Mandas in Dupont Circle, see “Dupont Birds and Squirrels Find Friend in Peanut Vender,” Washington Star, Aug. 14, 1927, p. 5. For an example of an adopted orphan squirrel, see “Tom, Our Squirrel,” Our Four Footed Friends, 7 (April 1908), 5–7. On public pets, see Grier, Pets in America, 219–26. On pets in general, see Yi-Fu Tuan, Dominance and Affection: The Making of Pets (New Haven, 1984); James Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-Animal Relationships (Oxford, 1986); and Ritvo, Animal Estate, 82–121.
28. On children and women demanding nest boxes for squirrels in Central Park, see “To Build Real Homes for Park Squirrels,” New York Times, Dec. 17, 1906, p. 11.
29. On college students as feeders of squirrels, see “Gray Squirrels in College Yard,” 17. On Thanksgiving feeding in 1908, see “Summer Crowd on the Common. Children Wade about in Frog Pond. Thanksgiving Cheer Evident among All Classes. Beggars, Squirrels, Birds—All Remembered,” Boston Daily Globe, Nov. 27, 1908, p. 10. On the domestic ethic of kindness, see Grier, Pets in America, 127–81.
30. On squirrels’ upright stance, which frees their front paws to hold nuts for inspection or shelling, see Barkalow and Shorten, World of the Gray Squirrel, 27. “Squirrels and Wild Cats at War,” New York Herald-Tribune, March 6, 1893, p. 4.
31. Marian Longfellow, “The Pensioner in Gray,” Our Dumb Animals, 45 (Feb. 1913), 142, reprinted from St. Nicholas, 36 (Nov. 1908), 11; M. E., “A Serious Misunderstanding between My Squirrel and Me,” Ottawa Naturalist, 43 (Dec. 1904), 176–78, folder 35: “Loose Items from Christine Farley Note Book, 1911–39,” box 4, MC 419, Cambridge Plant and Garden Club Records 1889–1991 (Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University).
32. L. F. Peck, “Hi, Mister! Scramble a Nut?” Harvard Lampoon, Dec. 17, 1903, p. 121; “Lampoon Review,” Harvard Crimson, Dec. 19, 1903, http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1903/12/19/lampoon-review-pthe-last-number-of/. On “muckers,” see H. M. S., “The Cambridge Mucker,” Harvard Illustrated, 4 (Dec. 1903), 70–74. On “muckers” as a threat to squirrels, see “Gray Squirrels in College Yard,” 17.
33. “Squirrels Pauperized,” Springfield (MA) Republican, May 13, 1904, p. 14.
34. On Ernest Thompson Seton and the Boy Scouts of America, see Hugh Allen Anderson, The Chief: Ernest Thompson Seton and the Changing West (College Station, 2000); David L. Witt, Ernest Thompson Seton: The Life and Legacy of an Artist and Conservationist (Layton, 2010), 96–128; and Brian Morris, “Ernest Thompson Seton and the Origins of the Woodcraft Movement,” Journal of Contemporary History, 5 (April 1970), 183–94. Ernest Thompson Seton, “Around the Campfire,” Boys’ Life, 4 (April 1914), 23. On the nature-study movement, see Sally Gregory Kohlsted, Teaching Children Science: Hands-On Nature Study in North America, 1890–1930 (Chicago, 2010). On Theodore Roosevelt’s attacks on Seton and others, see Ralph H. Lutts, The Nature Fakers: Wildlife, Science, and Sentiment (Golden, 1990). On gender roles in American conservation discourse during the early twentieth century, see Adam Rome, “‘Political Hermaphrodites’: Gender and Environmental Reform in Progressive America,” Environmental History,11 (July 2006), 440–63.
35. On attacks on Central Park squirrels, see “Three Boy Vandals Confess Their Raid,” New York Herald, Dec. 5, 1892, p. 5. On police protection of squirrels, see “Autumn Glories in the Park,” ibid., Oct. 6, 1895, p. 3; and “Central Park’s Many Visitors,” New York Times, April 23, 1888, p. 8.
36. On the characterization of attacks on squirrels as a betrayal of trust, see “Squirrels and Wild Cats at War,” p. 4; “Heard about Town,” New York Times, Sept. 25, 1900, p. 5; A. A. C., “Cruelty in Central Park,” ibid., Oct. 28, 1897, p. 6; “The Chronicler,” Cambridge (MA) Chronicle, March 2, 1901, p. 2; Norburne Barnard, “The Maimed Squirrels,” New York Times, July 15, 1908, p. 4; and Henry Zinn Gould, “Central Park Squirrels,” ibid., June 28, 1908, p. 8.
37. M. C. Ayres, “Porto Ricans at Harvard,” Boston Evening Transcript, July 16, 1904, p. 19. On the intersections of conservation and nativism during the early twentieth century, see Peter Coates, American Perceptions of Immigrant and Invasive Species: Strangers on the Land (Berkeley, 2006); Philip J. Pauly, “The Beauty and Menace of the Japanese Cherry Trees: Conflicting Visions of American Ecological Independence,” Isis, 87 (March 1996), 51–73. On Italians as poachers of squirrels in New York City’s parks, see [William T. Hornaday], “Notes,” New York Zoological Society Bulletin, 11 (Oct. 1903), 122–23; “Heard about Town,” 5; and “Struck Down by Poachers,” New York Times, Dec. 17, 1900, p. 10. For William T. Hornaday’s animus toward Italian poachers of songbirds and squirrels, see William T. Hornaday, Our Vanishing Wildlife: Its Extermination and Preservation (New York, 1913). On the image of the Italian as a poacher, see Louis S. Warren, The Hunter’s Game: Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, 1999), 21–37. On the case of Joseph Baccheri, see “The Chronicler,” Cambridge (MA) Chronicle, Oct. 10, 1903, p. 2; “Cruelty Rewarded,” ibid., Oct. 17, 1903, p. 5.
38. George Allan England, “Sciurus Carolinensis, Esq.,” Harvard Illustrated, 4 (Nov. 1902), 48–51, esp. 49; “Gray Squirrels in College Yard,” 17.
39. On the landscape of fear, see John W. Laundré, Lucina Hernández, and Kelly B. Altendorf, “Wolves, Elk, and Bison: Reestablishing the ‘Landscape of Fear’ in Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A.,” Canadian Journal of Zoology, 79 (Aug. 2001), 1401–9. On the effect of cats and dogs on the tameness of squirrels, see “Squirrels and Wild Cats at War,” p. 4; Theodore Roosevelt to Archie Roosevelt, Nov. 27, 1908, in Theodore Roosevelt’s Letters to His Children, ed. Bishop, 34.
40. William T. Hornaday, “The Wild Animals of Hudson’s Day: Part II—The Mammals,” New York Zoological Society Bulletin, 17 (Sept. 1909), 533–42, esp. 541; “Summer Crowd on the Common.”
41. “Cruelty Rewarded,” 5. On the idea of “making killable,” see Jacques Derrida and Jean-Luc Nancy, “‘Eating Well,’ or the Calculation of the Subject: An Interview with Jacques Derrida,” in Who Comes after the Subject?, ed. Eduardo Cadava, Peter Connor, and Jean-Luc Nancy (New York, 1991), 96–119; and Donna J. Haraway, “Sharing Suffering: Instrumental Relations between Laboratory Animals and Their People,” in When Species Meet, by Donna J. Haraway (Minneapolis, 2008), 69–93.
42. On squirrel bites, see Brewster, “Squirrels in Cambridge,” 446; and “Gray Squirrels in College Yard,” 17. On the student teasing a squirrel, see “The Chronicler,” Cambridge (MA) Chronicle, March 2, 1901, p. 2.
43. On the health disadvantages of peanuts, see Thomas C. Hall, “Hints as to Feeding the Park Squirrels,” New York Times, Nov. 28, 1905, p. 8. On squirrels’ nutritional needs, see Steele and Koprowski, North American Tree Squirrels, 37–50.
44. On caching behavior, see Steele and Koprowski, North American Tree Squirrels, 65–82. On heightened intraspecific aggression in dense urban squirrel populations and diseases in stressed populations, see Tommy S. Parker and Charles H. Nilon, “Gray Squirrel Density, Habitat Suitability, and Behavior in Urban Parks,” Urban Ecosystems, 11 (May 2008), 243–55; and Hadidian et al., “Urban Gray Squirrel Damage and Population Management.”
45. On mechanistic interpretations of animal behavior in midcentury ethology, see Eileen Crist, Images of Animals: Anthropomorphism and Animal Mind (Philadelphia, 1999); and Richard W. Burkhardt Jr., Patterns of Behavior: Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen, and the Founding of Ethology (Chicago, 2005). On the spread of the gray squirrel outside of its native range, see Barkalow and Shorten, World of the Gray Squirrel, 116–19; and Thorington and Ferrell, Squirrels, 137–38. On the global exchange of species, see Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (Cambridge, Eng., 2004); and Harriet Ritvo, “Going Forth and Multiplying: Animal Acclimatization and Invasion,” Environmental History, 17 (April 2012), 404–14. On squirrels as “beggars” and “thieves,” see, for example, Joseph A. Haff, “Squirrels Turning Pugnacious at Brooklyn’s Botanic Garden; Caution: Bright-Eyed Little Beggars May Take More than Peanuts,” New York Times, May 23, 1967, p. 49; and Bill Adler Jr., Outwitting Squirrels: 101 Cunning Stratagems to Reduce Dramatically the Egregious Misappropriation of Seed from Your Birdfeeder by Squirrels (Chicago, 1996), xv.
46. On predator control and the feeding of wildlife in U.S. national parks, see Richard West Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History (New Haven, 1997), 149–266; and Alice Wondrak Biel, Do (Not) Feed the Bears: The Fitful History of Wildlife and Tourists in Yellowstone (Lawrence, 2006).
47. On changing attitudes toward the feeding of wild animals, see Biel, Do (Not) Feed the Bears; Andrew D. Blechman, Pigeons: The Fascinating Saga of the World’s Most Revered and Reviled Bird (New York, 2007); and Colin Jerolmack, “How Pigeons Became Rats: The Cultural-Spatial Logic of Problem Animals,” Social Problems, 55 (no. 1, 2008), 72–94.
48. On attitudes toward gray squirrels in the United Kingdom, see Peter A. Coates, “Over Here: American Animals in Britain,” in Invasive and Introduced Plants and Animals: Human Perceptions, Attitudes, and Approaches to Management, ed. Ian Rotherham and Robert Lambert (Washington, 2011), 39–54. On the American environmental and animal rights movements, see Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985 (New York, 1987); Hal K. Rothman, Saving the Planet: The American Response to the Environment in the Twentieth Century (Chicago, 2000); Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, 2005); and Beers, For the Prevention of Cruelty.