Hybrid Energy governance

University of Illinois Law Review

Volumn 2014, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 1-66

  Osofsky, Hari M ^a   Wiseman, Hannah J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^b FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84897411556     PISSN: 02769948     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (266)

1. See Nat'l Comm'n on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill & Offshore Drilling, Stopping the Spill: The Five-Month Effort to Kill the Macondo Well (Staff Working Paper No. 6, 2010), available at http://www.oilspillcommission. gov/sites/default/files/documents/Updated%20Containrnent%20Worki ng%20Paper.pdf.
2. See infra Part II; PJM, OPERATIONS UPDATE: HURRICANE SANDY, available at http://www.pjmxorn/~/media/committees-groups/cornmittees/mc/20121126-webinar/ 20121126-reports-itern-03bhurricane-sandy.ashx (2012) (noting "140 transmission lines out of service", forty offline generators, approximately five million customers without service during the peak of the problems, and observing that customer outages were "higher than both the 6/29/2012 Derecho and Hurricane Irene", while assessing the impacts of the hurricane and reporting preliminary data)
3. Peter Applebome & Elizabeth Maker, In Connecticut Replay, Storm Comes, Power Goes, N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 11, 2013, at A12 (noting that "losing trees and power has been common in Connecticut in recent storms")
4. Nate Schweber & Jess Bidgood, Anxiety Grows as Thousands Remain Stranded and in the Dark After Storm, N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 10, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/ll/us/after-the-big-snowfall-the-struggle-to- digout.html?pagewanted=all&-r=0 (noting that at one point after the storm, 650, 000 customers in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts were without power).
5. Ken Belson, Before Game is Decided, Superdome Goes Dark, N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 3, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/04/sports/football/power-outage-in- superdome-delays-superbowl.html.
6. See Dennis Jacobe, Americans Want More Emphasis on Solar, Wind, Natural Gas, GALLUP (Mar. 27, 2013), http://www.gallup. com/poll/161519/americans- emphasis-solar-wind-natural-gas.aspx;
7. http://www.nrel.gov/news/press/2013/2225.html.
8. Hari M. Osofsky & Hannah J. Wiseman, Dynamic Energy Federalism, 72 MD. L. REV. 772 (2013).
9. See, e.g., John Hauer et al., Advanced Transmission Technologies, NAT'L TRANSMISSION GRID STUDY, at F-4-F-5, F9(2002), available al http://certs.lbl. gov/ntgs/issue-6.pdf. Hauer et al. describe technologies, like flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) that "balance the load between" certain lines and computer and communication devices called supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and energy management system (EMS) technology, which provide better real-time data about electricity being demanded from the grid and available electricity generation. All of these technologies allow the grid to be operated closer to its maximum limits (capacity), but as this occurs, "knowing exactly where those limits are and how much operating margin remains becomes increasingly important."
10. See, e.g., Jesse Broehl, Colorado Voters Pass Renewable Energy Standard, RENEWABLE ENERGY WORLD (Nov. 3, 2004), http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/ news/article/2004/ll/colorado-voters-pass-renewable-energy-standard-17736;
11. Anthony York, Voters Reject Prop. 23, Keeping California's Global Warming Law Intact [Updated], L. A. TIMES POLMCAL (Nov. 2, 2010, 11:17 PM), http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/california-politics/2010/ll/voters-reject-prop- 23-keeping-cali fornias-global-warming-law-intact.html.
12. See, e.g., Renewable Portfolio Standard Policies, DATABASE OF STATE INCENTIVES FOR RENEWABLES AND EFFICIENCY (2013), available at http://www.dsireusa.org/documents/summarymaps/RPS-map.pdf (showing twenty-nine states, the District of Columbia, and two territories with standards that require a certain percentage of electricity to come from renewable energy sources).
13. This challenge echoes the regulatory commons problem theorized by William Buzbee. This problem typically arises when impacts like aquaculture or climate change cross jurisdictional boundaries, and multiple governments have some but not full responsibility for controlling the impacts. No one government has adequate authority or incentive to address the entire problem, and this creates a regulatory commons in which regulatory gaps occur. See William W. Buzbee, Recognizing the Regulatory Commons: A Theory of Regulatory Gaps, 89 IOWA L. REV. 1, 22-26 (2003).
14. See, e.g., Paul Schiff Berman, Global Legal Pluralism, 80 S. CAL. L. REV. 1155 (2007) (analyzing a variety of pluralist models)
15. see also Diane Marie Amann, Calling Children to Account: The Proposal for a Juvenile Chamber in the Special Court for Sierra Leone, 29 PEPP. L. REV. 167 (2001)
16. Elena A. Baylis, Parallel Courts in Post-Conflict Kosovo, 32 YALE J. INT'L L. 1 (2007)
17. William W. Burke-White, International Legal Pluralism, 25 MICH. J. INT'L L. 963 (2004)
18. Janet Koven Levit, A Bottom-Up Approach to International Lawmaking: The Tale of Three Trade Finance Instruments, 30 YALE J. INT'L L. 125 (2005)
19. Ralf Michaels, The Re-Stale-Ment of Non-State Law: The State, Choice of Law, and the Challenge from Global Legal Pluralism, 51 WAYNE L. REV. 1209 (2005).
20. See, e.g., Jody Freeman & Jim Rossi, Agency Coordination in Shared Regulatory Space, 125 HARV. L. REV. 1131, 1135 (2012).
21. See, e.g., Robin Kundis Craig, Constitutional Contours for the Design and Implementation of Multistate Renewable Energy Programs and Projects, 81 U. COLO. L. REV. 771 (2010)
22. Felix Frankfurter & James M. Landis, The Compact Clause of the Constitution-A Study in Interstate Adjustment, 34 YALE L. J. 685, 696-98 (1925)
23. Noah D. Hall, Toward a New Horizontal Federalism: Interstate Water Management in the Great Lakes Region, 77 U. COLO. L. REV. 405 (2006)
24. Hannah Wiseman, Expanding Regional Renewable Governance, 35 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 477 (2011).
25. Kenneth W. Abbott & Duncan Snidal, Strengthening International Regulation Through Transnational New Governance: Overcoming the Orchestration Deficit, 42 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 501, 508-09 (2009).
26. For additional examples of new governance approaches, see Bradley C. Karkkainen, "New Governance" in the Great Lakes Basin: Has Its Time Arrived?, 2006 MICH. ST. L. REV. 1249, 1254-55 (2006)
27. J. B. Ruhl & James Salzman, Climate Change, Dead Zones, and Massive Problems in the Administrative State: A Guide for Whittling Away, 98 CAL. L. REV. 59, 102-08 (2010).
28. Even technological progress in fuel extraction is far from purely private. The government subsidizes the expensive technologies needed for unconventional development through tax exemptions and other mechanisms, and it also directly funds research-often public-private venturesthrough organizations like the National Energy Technology Laboratory. See, e.g., NAT'L ENERGY TECH. LAB., OBAMA ADMINISTRATION ANNOUNCES NEW PARTNERSHIP ON UNCONVENTIONAL NATURAL GAS AND OIL RESEARCH (Apr. 13, 2012), http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/ press/2012/120413-obama-administration.html.
29. See, e.g., INTL. ENERGY AGENCY, WORLD ENERGY OUTLOOK 49, 75-76 (2012) (describing rapidly growing U. S. shale gas and oil production, which might cause the United States to become a net exporter of fuels)
30. U. S. ENVTL. PROTECTION AGENCY, PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO AIR REGULATIONS FOR THE OIL AND NATURAL GAS INDUSTRY 2(July 28, 2011), available at http://www.epa.gov/airquality/oilandgas/pdfs/20110728factsheet.pdf (explaining that approximately 11, 400 new gas wells are fractured in the United States each year and that approximately 14, 000 are refractured).
31. See, e.g., John M. Broder & Clifford Krauss, U. S. in Accord With Mexico on Drilling, N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 20, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/ 21/world/americas/mexico-and-us-agree-on-oiland-gas-development-in-gulf.html (explaining that a U. S.-Mexican agreement on the regulation of offshore drilling in the Gulf might open "more than a million acres to deepwater drilling").
32. See JOHN S. DUFFIELD, OVER A BARREL: THE COSTS OF U. S. FOREIGN OIL DEPENDENCE 27 (2008) (noting that even if the United States did not import any oil, our "economy could still be greatly affected by developments abroad" because of the linkage between domestically produced oil and global markets-including global prices).
33. Ultimately, regardless of where we produce oil and gas, these are global goods. If we extract more here and rely less on imports, we might enjoy short-term energy security by avoiding the need to intervene in foreign countries in order to secure current access to fuel. But if we remain concerned about price spikes, other countries' reliance on enemies' fuel sources, and the maintenance of a relatively steady global supply of fossil fuel for our allies, expanded domestic production may do little to change America's foreign policy stance and its interest in overseas supplies. That said, if we became a net energy exporter, this would certainly give us more bargaining power in a number of disputes and could potentially avoid some of the violent conflicts that have been associated, at least in part, with oil and gas. See, e.g., Richard J. Pierce, Jr., Natural Gas: A Long Bridge to a Promising Destination, 32 UTAH ENVTL. L. REV. 245, 251 (2012). ("The shale gas boom will also have significant beneficial effects on geopolitical conditions by, for instance: reducing Russia's leverage over Europe due to Gazprom's dominance of the European gas market, reducing Iran's leverage over India due to India's heavy reliance on energy supplies from Iran, and eliminating completely the risk that Russian President Vladimir Putin will be successful in his efforts to create a natural gas version of the OPEC cartel.").
34. See ENVTL. PROTECTION AGENCY, supra note 42, at 2;
35. Hannah Wiseman, Risk and Response in Fracturing Policy, 84 U. COLO. L. REV. 729, 735(2013), [hereinafter Risk and Response] (describing how the number of fractured wells in Pennsylvania rose by more than three-hundred percent between 2008 and 2009)
36. Hannah Wiseman, Fracturing Regulation Applied, 22 DUKE ENVTL. L. & POL'Y F. 361, 362-63 (2012) [hereinafter Fracturing Regulation) (describing the first "slickwater" fracture treatment in the Barnett Shale in the 1990s).
37. See Fracturing Regulation, supra note 46, at 362-63 (explaining that different technologies are used in slickwater fracturing of shales and tight sands, as compared to coalbed methane fracturing)-
38. WHAT IS SHALE GAS AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?, U. S. ENERGY INFO, ADMIN., http://205.254.135.7/energy-in-brief/about-shale-gas.cfm (Dec. 5, 2012) (projecting "U. S. natural gas production to increase from 23.0 trillion cubic feet in 2011 to 33.1 trillion cubic feet in 2040, a 44% increase", nearly all of which will result from shale gas production)
39. N. D. PETROLEUM COUNCIL, NORTH DAKOTA DEPARTMENT OF RESOURCES ANNUAL REPORT 3, 9-10(2011), available at http://www.ndoil.org/image/cache/ NDPCAnnual092111-2.pdf (showing record numbers of new well permits issued in recent years, which, as shown by the remainder of the report, is due largely to production of oil from the Bakken Shale).
40. Despite the outpouring of attention to the potential for contamination of underground water supplies, the majority of risks appear to arise at the surface based on incidents at shale gas and tight sands sites so far. See generally Risk and Response, supra note 47, at 760 (characterizing the risks based on state enforcement of environmental regulations at shale gas and tight sands sites)
41. Fracturing Regulation, supra note 47, at 361-67 (summarizing the risks and describing state enforcement actions at well sites).
42. See Hannah J. Wiseman & Francis Gradijan, Regulation of Shale Gas Development, Including Hydraulic Fracturing at 49-50 n. 230 (June 15, 2012) (unpublished manuscript), available at http://papers.ssrn. corn/so13/papers.cfm? abstract-id=1953547 (describing gas migration incidents located through public records requests).
43. See N. Y. DEFT. OF ENVTL. CONSERVATION, SUPPLEMENTAL REVISED DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT 6-2(2011) (describing water withdrawal impacts), available at http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/materials-minerals-pdf/rdsgeisch50911. pdf;
44. Fracturing Regulation, supra note 46, at 366.
45. For a summary of many of the risks, see generally Risk and Response, supra note 46, at 779-82, 794-96.
46. David B. Spence, Federalism, Regulatory Lags, and the Political Economy of Energy Production, 161 U. PA. L. REV. 431, 481 (2013) (observing that fracturing "can affect the air quality, water quality, and visual aspects of the nearby environment").
47. See, e.g., Eliza Griswold, The Fracturing of Pennsylvania, N. Y. TIMES MAGAZINE (Nov. 17, 2011), http://www.nytimes.coin/2011/11/20/magazme/fracking- amwell-township.html?pagewanted=all (describing some township residents' objections to fracturing and its impacts).
48. Pamela Chergotis, Highland is the Latest Town to Ban Fracking, PIKE CNTY. COURIER, (July 12, 2012), http://pikecountycourier.com/apps/pbcs.d11/article? AID=/20120712/NEWS01/120719968/Highland-is-the-latest-town-to-ban-fracking (describing four New York towns in the Delaware River watershed that have banned fracturing)
49. see also Anschutz Exploration Corp. V. Dryden (N. Y. Sup. 2012)
50. Cooperstown Holstein Corp. V. Town of Middlefield (N. Y. Sup. 2012) (validating bans)
51. Longmont, Colorado, Charter, Article XVI, § 16.3, available at http://library.municode.com/index.aspx? clientld=14590 (prohibiting hydraulic fracturing).
52. See 58 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. § 3304 (a) (b) (West 2012) (providing that "all local ordinances regulating oil and gas operations shall allow for the reasonable development of oil and gas resources", shall allow well operations, may not impose conditions on oil and gas operations more stringent than limitations on other industrial uses within the local jurisdiction, and "[sjhall authorize oil and gas operations... as a permitted use in all zoning districts").
53. But see Robinson Twp v. Commonwealth, 52 A.3d 463, 480 (Pa. Commw. Ct. 2012) (invalidating the preemption (under review; currently awaiting a decision by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court)).
54. see, e.g., SAMUEL GALLAHER, BUECHNER INST. FOR GOVERNANCE, LOCAL, REGIONAL, AND STATE GOVERNMENT PERSPECTIVES ON HYDRAULIC FRACTURING-RELATED OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT, Full Report, at iv, available at http://www.ucdenver.edu/ acadernics/colleges/SPA/BuechnerInstitute/Research/natgasdev/library/Documents/ Government%20Perspectives%20on% 20Oil%20and%20Gas%20Development%20Full%20Report%202013%20Gallaher.pdf (noting local officials' concerns about road damage and about the adequacy of bonds for addressing local damage).
55. See, e.g., Berish v. Southwestern Energy Prod. Co., 763 F. Supp. 2d 702, 703 (M. D. Pa. 2011)
56. Fiorentino v. Cabot Oil & Gas Co., 750, F. Supp. 2d 506, 508 (M. D. Pa. 2010).
57. See, e.g., Risky Gas Drilling Threatens Health, Water Supplies, NATURAL RES. DEF. COUNCIL, http://www.nrdc.org/energy/gasdrilling/ (last visited Nov. 17, 2013)
58. Lisa Sumi, Oil and Gas Accountability Project, Our Drinking Water at Risk, (2005), available at http://www.earthworksaction. org/files/publications/ DrinkingWaterAtRisk.pdf.
59. See Jim Efstathiou Jr., New Jersey Lawmakers Send Christie Ban on Hydraulic Fracturing, BLOOMBERG (June 29, 2011), http://www.bloomberg.com/news/ 2011-06-30/new-jersey-lawmakerssendhristie-ban-on-hydraulic-fracturing.html;
60. Vermont First State to Ban Fracturing, CNN NEWS (May 17, 2012), http://articles.cnn. com/2012-05-17/us/us-vermont-fracking-l-fracking-shale- naturalgas?-s=PM:US;
61. MD. DEP'T OF THE ENV'T, FACTS ABOUT... THE MARCELLUS SHALE SAFE DRILLING INITIATIVE, http://www.mde.state.md.us/programs/Land/mining/Non%20Coal%20Mining/ Documents/Shale-EO-factsheet-061011.pdf (describing a three-part study in Maryland on fracturing risks)
62. Press Release, N. Y. DEP'T OF ENVTL. CONSERVATION, NEW RECOMMENDATIONS ISSUED IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING REVIEW (June 30, 2011), http://www.dec.ny.gov/ press/75403.html (describing New York's extensive process to review the risks of shale gas development, after which "the Department will implement a system of oversight, monitoring and enforcement").
63. But cf. Helen Cooper and Jonathan Weisman, Obama Seeks to End Subsidies for Oil and Gas Companies, N. Y. TIMES (Mar. 1, 2012), http://www.nytimes.com/ 2012/03/02/us/politics/obamacalls-for-an-end-to-subsidies-for-oil-and-gas- companies.html.
64. Temperatures are very cold at the seabed and very hot where the oil is located. See NAT'L COMM'N ON THE BP DEEPWATER HORIZON OIL SPILL & OFFSHORE DRILLING, DEEPWATER: THE GULF OIL DISASTER AND THE FUTURE OF OFFSHORE DRILLING-REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT, 48, 51(2011), http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/ GPO-OILCOMMISSION/pdf/GPO-OILCOMMISSION.pdf [hereinafter NATIONAL COMMISSION REPORT].
65. Mark A. Latham, Five Thousand Feet and Below: The Failure to Adequately Regulate Deepwater Oil Production Technology, 38 B. C. ENVTL. AFF. L. REV. 343, 346-47, 346 n. 20 (2011).
66. See Nat'l Comm'n on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill & Offshore Drilling, Stopping the Spill: The Five-Month Effort to Kill the Macondo Well (Staff Working Paper No. 6, 2010), available at http://www.oilspillcommission. gov/sites/default/files/documents/Updated%20Containment%20Worki ng%20Paper.pdf.;
67. Nat'l Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill & Offshore Drilling, The Use of Surface and Subsea Dispersants During the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 1(Staff Working Paper No. 4, 2011), available at http://www.oilspillcommission. gov/sites/default/files/documents/ Updated%20Dispersants%20Working%20Paper.pdf;
68. One Year Later Press Pack, RESTORETHEGULF.GOV (Apr. 10, 2011, 3:27 PM), http://www.restorethegulf.gov/release/2011/04/10/one-year-laterpress-pack.
69. NATIONAL COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 64, at 146-47;
70. Nat'l Comm'n on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling, Decision-Making Within the Unified Command 12(Staff Working Paper No. 2, 2011), http://www.oilspillcommission. gov/sites/default/files/documents/ Updated%20Unified%20Command%20Working%20Paper.pdf.
71. NATIONAL COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 64, at 129-71.
72. see also Christopher M. Reddy et al., Composition and Fate of Gas and Oil Released to the Water Column During the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, PNAS, Early Edition July 2011 at 1, available at http://www.pnas.org/content/early/ 2011/07/15/1101242108.fu!l.pdf+html?withds=yes;
73. Press Release, NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION, Chemical Make-up of Gulf of Mexico Plume Determined (July 18, 2011), http://www.nsf.gov/news/news-summ.jsp? cntn-id=120962&WT, mc-id=USNSF-51 &WT.mc-ev=click.
74. Hari M. Osofsky, Multidimensional Governance and BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, 63 FLA. L. REV. 1077, 1112 (2011) [hereinafter Multidimensional Governance]
75. (citing Robert D. Bullard, Voices: Environmental Justice Communities Bear Brunt of BP's Oil Spill Waste Disposal, THE INSTITUTE FOR SOUTHERN STUDIES (Apr. 23, 2011, 10:48 AM), http://www.southernstudies.org/2011/04/voices- environmental-justice-communities-bear-brunt-of-bps-oil-spill-waste-disposal. html) (explaining that 42.3 percent of the waste went to communities that had majority people of color and that 85.1 percent went to municipalities in which the percent of people of color in the community was higher than the percentage in the county).
76. For an in-depth discussion of these concerns, see NAT'L COMM'N ON THE BP DEEPWATER HORIZON OIL SPILL & OFFSHORE DRILLING, REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT, supra note l;
77. Osofsky, Multidimensional Governance, supra note 70;
78. Hari M. Osofsky, Kate Baxter-Kauf, Bradley Hammer, Ann Mailander, Brett Mares, Amy Pikovsky, Andrew Whitney & Laura Wilson, Environmental Justice and the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, 20 N. Y. U. ENVTL L. J. 99 (2012).
79. See Hannah Wiseman, Regulatory Adaptation in Fractured Appalachia, 21 VILL. ENVTL. L. J. 229, 243-47 (2010) (describing some of the major federal exemptions, which largely leave states with regulatory responsibilities).
80. For a detailed examination of federalism dynamics around deepwater drilling, see Multidimensional Governance, supra note 70.
81. ENVTL. PROTECTION AGENCY, Proposed Amendments to Air Regulations for the Oil and Natural Gas Industry, Fact Sheet at 2, http://epa.gov/airquatity/ oilandgas/pdfs/20110728factsheet.pdf (noting air emissions, such as carbon monoxide, not regulated in the final rule)
82. Oil and Natural Gas Sector: New Source Performance Standards and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants Reviews, EPA-HQ-OAR-2010-0505 (finalized Apr. 17, 2012), available at http://www.epa.gov/airquality/oilandgas/ pdfs/20120417finalrule.pdf (regulating volatile organic compounds from wells).
83. See generally PA. DEP'T OF ENVTL. PROT., NORTHCENTRAL PENNSYLVANIA MARCELLUS SHALE SHORT-TERM AMBIENT AIR SAMPLING REPORT (2011), available at http://www.dep. state. pa.us/dep/deputate/airwaste/aq/aqm/docs/Marcellus-NC-05- 06-ll.pdf;
84. Sampling Results Near Oil and Natural Gas Facilities by County, TEX. COMM'N ENVTL. QUALITY, http://www.tceq.texas.gov/toxicology/barnettshale/ samplingresults (last updated Sept. 30, 2013).
85. Letter from Shawn M. Garvin, Regional Administrator, Envtl. Prot. Agency, to Michael Krancer, Acting Secretary, Pennsylvania Dept. of Envtl. Protection (Mar. 7, 2011), available at http://www.epa.gov/region3/marcellus-shale/PADEP- Marcellus-Shale-030711.pdf (describing concerns about inadequately treated wastewater from shale gas wells).
86. Press Release, Envtl. Prot. Agency, EPA Announces Schedule to Develop Natural Gas Wastewater Standards (Oct. 20, 2011), http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/ admpress.nsf/bd4379a92 ceceeac8525735900400c27/ 91e7fadb4bll4c4a8525792f00542001!OpenDocument.
87. Natural Gas Development Regulations, Del. River Basin Comm'n (proposed Nov. 8, 2011) (implementing §§ 3.3, 3.6 (b), 3.8, 4d, 5.2, 7.1, 13.1 and 14.2 (a) of Delaware River Basin Compact, Pub. L. No. 87-328, 75 Stat. 688 (1961)), [hereinafter Revised Draft of Natural Gas Development Regulations], available at http://www.nj.gov/drbc/library/documents/naturalgas- REVISEDdraftregs110811.pdf.
88. Press Release, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Dept. of Envtl. Protection, DEP Calls on Natural Gas Drillers to Stop Giving Treatment Facilities Wastewater (Apr. 19, 2011), available at http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/ community/newsroom/14287?id=%2017071%20&typeid=1.
89. See Risk and Response, supra note 46, at 145 (describing proposed and finalized regulations).
90. For an in-depth discussion of these issues, see Multidimensional Governance, supra note 70, at 1091, 1096.
91. See NATIONAL COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 64, at 131.
92. See Decision-Making Within the Unified Command, supra note 67, at 8-9;
93. See NATIONAL COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 64, at 153.
94. See Decision-Making Within the Unified Command, supra note 67, at 17-20.
95. See, e.g., HALLIBURTON, U. S. SHALE GAS: AN UNCONVENTIONAL RESOURCE, UNCONVENTIONAL CHALLENGES (2008), available at http://ww.haluburton. corn/public/solutions/contents/shale/related-docs/H063771.pdf (describing differences among the several types of shales and tight sands drilled and fractured).
96. See, e.g., Editorial, The Halliburton Loophole, N. Y. TIMES, Nov. 3, 2009, at A28, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/ll/03/opinion/03tue3. html?r=0.
97. See Hannah Wiseman, Untested Waters: The Rise of Hydraulic Fracturing in Oil and Gas Production and the Need to Revisit Regulation, 20 FORDHAM ENVTL. L. REV. 115, 181 (2009).
98. See, e.g., NATIONAL COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 64, at 228.
99. New Jersey v. New York, 347 U. S. 995, 997 (1954) (authorizing diversions and appointing a River Master)
100. see CAROL R. COLLIER, THE DRBC: MANAGING INTERSTATE WATER CONFLICTS THROUGH SOUND SCIENCE, ADAPTATION, AND COLLABORATION 1(2004), available at http://www.state.nj.us/drbc/library/documents/FisheriesOpEd-July2004.pdf (noting that the Supreme Court decision "settled years of interstate conflict").
101. Delaware River Basin Compact, Pub. L. No. 87-328, 75 Stat. 688 (1961).
102. Press Release, Del. River Basin Comm'n; DRBC Postpones Vote on Draft Natural Gas Regulations, (Oct. 7, 2011), available at http://www.state.nj.us/ drbc/home/newsroom/news/approved/20111007-newsrel-naturalgas.html (showing a stalled final vote, which did not later occur)
103. "Fracking" Proposal Currently Lacks Sufficient Health and Safety Protections, STATE OF DELAWARE (Nov. 17, 2011), http://news.delaware.gov/ 2011/ll/17/drbc-fracking/ (showing a pledged vote of "no" on the proposed regulations-a vote that then did not occur)
104. State of N. Y. V. Army Corps of Eng'rs, 896 F. Supp. 2d 180 (E. D. N. Y. 2010) (addressing the State of New York's objection to the DRBC regulations-its argument that the proposed regulations required full National Environmental Policy Act review- and finding a lack of standing)
105. Comments on Dec. 2010 Draft Natural Gas Regulations, DEL. RIVER BASIN COMM'N, http://www.nj.gov/drbc/programs/natural/draftregs-dec2010-comments.html.
106. See NATIONAL COMMISSION REPORT, supra note 64, at 1;
107. Zygmunt J. B. Plater, Learning from Disasters: Twenty-One Years After the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, Will Reactions to the Deepwater Horizon Blowout Finally Address the Systemic Flaws Revealed in Alaska?, 40 ENVTL. L. REP. 11, 041, 11, 045-46 (2010)
108. Harlan Kirgan, Biloxi Beach Event to Call for Citizen Group to Monitor Oil and Gas Activities in Gulf of Mexico, GULFUVE. COM (June 24, 2011, 6:56 AM), http://blog.gulflive.com/mississippi-press-news/2011/06/biloxLbeach-event-to- call-for.html.
109. Oil Pollution Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-380, 104 Stat. 484
110. Felicia Barnes, Regional Citizen Advisory Councils: Their Role in Oil Spill Prevention and Response, 24 GEO. INT'L ENVTL. L. REV. 169, 170 (2012)
111. Zygmunt J. B. Plater, Facing a Time of Counter-Revolution-The Kepone Incident and a Review of First Principles, 29 U. RICH. L. REV. 657, 700-01 (1995)
112. William H. Rodgers, Jr., The Most Creative Moments in the History of Environmental Law: "The Whats", 2000 U. ILL. L. REV. 1, 22-23 (citing an E-mail from Zygmunt Plater, Professor, Bos. Coll. Law Sch., to William H. Rodgers, Professor, Univ. of Wash. Sch. of Law (Feb. 2, 1998) (on file with the University of Illinois Law Review))
113. George J. Busenberg, Regional Citizens' Advisory Councils and Collaborative Environmental Management in the Marine Oil Trade of Alaska (unpublished manuscript), available at http://citation. allacademic.com//meta/p- mla-apa-research-citation/0/4/l/6/7/pages41678/p41678-l.php (studying the two advisory councils' impacts on policy change)
114. About Us, COOK INLET REGIONAL CITIZENS ADVISORY COUNCIL, http://www.circac.org/index.php?option=com-content&view=article &id=l&Itemid=9 (last visited Nov. 17, 2013) [hereinafter About Us, COOK];
115. About Us, PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND REGIONAL CITIZENS' ADVISORY COUNCIL, http://www.pwsrcac.org/about/ (last visited Nov. 17, 2013) [hereinafter About Us, PRINCE].
116. DEL. CODE ANN. tit. 7, § 6501 (1953).
117. See, e.g., Marcellus Shale Coalition, MSC: Draft DRBC Regulations Duplicative, Exceed Body's Legal Authority, Apr. 13, 2011, http:// marcelluscoalition.org/2011/04/msc-draft-drbcregulations-duplicative-exceed- body%E2%80%99s-legal-authority/.
118. See DEL. CODE ANN. tit. 7, § 6501 (1953) ("WHEREAS, the water resources of the basin are presently subject to the duplicating, overlapping and uncoordinated administration of some 43 state agencies, 14 interstate agencies and 19 federal agencies which exercise a multiplicity of powers and duties resulting in a splintering of authority and responsibilities-")
119. New York's Role in the Delaware River Basin Commission, DEP'T ENVTL. CONS., http://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/48454.html (last visited Oct. 22, 2013) (describing voting powers and the role of the individual state parties).
120. See Letter from Shawn Garvin, Regional Administrator, EPA, to Michael Krancer, Secretary, PADEP (May 12, 2011), available at http://www.epa.gov/ region3/marcellus-shale/pdf/letter/krancer-letter5-12-ll.pdf (noting the need for certification to show that new wastes can be treated)
121. cf., 33 U. S. C. § 1317 (1977) (requiring new pretreatment standards in order "to insure that any source introducing pollutants into a publicly owned treatment works, which source would be a new source subject to section 1316 of this title if it were to discharge pollutants, will not cause a violation of the effluent limitations established for any such treatment works").
122. DEL. RIVER BASIN COMM'N, supra note 78, at 5.
123. About Us, PRINCE, supra note 108.
124. Member Entities, PRINCE, supra note 108.
125. See Brian Handwerk, BP Oil Spill's Sticky Remnants Wash Up Sporadically on Gulf Beaches, NATL. GEOGRAPHIC, Mar. 22, 2012, http://news. nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2012/03/120322-gulf-oil-spill-tar-balls-wash- up-on-beaches/.
126. See Letter from Shawn M. Garvin, Reg'l Adm'r, EPA Region III, to Michael Krancer, Acting Sec'y, Penn. Dep't of Envtl. Prot. (Mar. 7, 2011), available at http://www.epa.gov/region3/marcellus-shale/PADEP-Marcellus-Shale-030711.pdf.
127. Letter from Michael Krancer, Acting Sec'y, Penn. Dep't of Envtl. Prot., to Shawn M. Garvin, Reg'l Adm'r, EPA Region III (Apr. 6, 2011), available at http://www.epa.gov/region03/marcellus-shale/Sha wn-Garvin-Letter-April-6-2011. pdf.
128. See Deep Injection Wells: How Drilling Waste is Disposed Underground, STATE IMPACT NPR, http://stateinpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/tag/deep-injection- well/ (last visited Oct. 22, 2013) ("Much of the frack water produced in Pennsylvania gets trucked to Ohio, which has more disposal wells. Water can also be treated at private treatment facilities."). Note, however, that a larger percentage of wastewater is now reused within Pennsylvania.
129. PENN STATE EXTENSION, MARCELLUS SHALE WASTEWATER ISSUES IN PENNSYLVANIA-CURRENT AND EMERGING TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGIES 5(2011), available at http://cce.comell.edu/EnergyClimateChange/NaturalGasDev/Documents/ PDFs/marcellus-wastewater-fact-sheet%5Bl%5D.pdf.
130. DEL. RIVER BASIN COMM'N, supra note 78, at 84.
131. DEL. RIVER BASIN COMM'N, supra note 78;
132. Press Release, DEL. RIVER BASIN COMM'N, DRBC Postpones November 21 Special Meeting, (Nov. 18, 2011), available at http://www.nj.gov/drbc/home/ newsroom/news/approved/20111118-newsrel-naturalgas.html.
133. See 58 PA. CONS. STAT. § 3304 (2013) (preempting a variety of local regulations)
134. (found unconstitutional by Robinson Tp. V. Pennsylvania., 52 A.3d 463 (Pa. Cmmw. Ct. 2012) (awaiting decision by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court))
135. Susan Phillips, Public Utility Commission Rejects Pittsburgh's Fracking Ban, STATE IMPACT NPR., (Sept. 11, 2012, 6:05 PM), http://stateimpact.npr.org/ pennsylvania/2012/09/11/public-utility-commission-rejects-pittsburghs-fracking- ban/ (also discussing a PUC opinion against one county's drilling regulations). Note that these opinions will not be fully resolved until the Pennsylvania Supreme Court decides whether Pennsylvania's Act 13 is constitutional.
136. Cf. PENN STATE UNIVERSITY, MARCELLUS EDUCATION FACT SHEET: WATER WITHDRAWALS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF MARCELLUS SHALE GAS IN PENNSYLVANIA 4(2010), available at http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/ua460.pdf ("Companies must obtain the necessary state approvals as well as those of the applicable river basin commission. (In areas not covered by a river basin commission, applications for well drilling and water management plans go entirely through DEP.) ").
137. DEL. RIVER BASIN COMM'N, supra note 78, at 58.
138. See Susan Phillips, As Delaware Announces No Vote on DRBC Regulations, Monday's Meeting in Doubt, STATE IMPACT NPR, (Nov. 17, 2011, 7:14 PM), http://statcimpact.npr.org/pcnnsylvania/2011/11/17/as-dclawarc-sets-to-vote-no- on-drbc-rcgulations-mondays-mccting-in-doubt/.
139. Complaint at 1, New York v. U. S. Army Corps of Eng'rs, 896 F. Supp. 2d 180 (E. D. N. Y. 2012) (No. CV11-2599).
140. See, e.g.. We Are on the Road to Victory! Delaware River Basin Commission Cancels Fracking Vote!, RLVERKEEPER (Nov. 18, 2011), http://www.rivcrkecpcr. org/ncws-cvents/news/safeguarddrinking-watcr/frackinggas-drilling/ drbc-cancels-fracking-vote/.
141. SUSQUEHANNA RIVER BASIN COMM'N, FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 2(2012), available at http://www.srbc.net/programs/docs/NaturalGasFAO-20120323-140574vl. pdf
142. See Decision-Making Within the Unified Command, supra note 67, at 17.
143. Plater's subsequent article that builds on this shorter piece provides a more detailed analysis of citizens' councils, praising their accomplishments and analyzing challenges that they have faced. See Zygmunt J. B. Plater, The Exxon Valdez Resurfaces in the Gulf of Mexico... and the Hazards of "Megasystem Centripetal Di-Polarity", 38 B. C. ENVTL. AFF. L. REV. 391, 409-15 (2011).
144. Cf. AM. SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, FAILURE TO ACT: THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF CURRENT INVESTMENT TRENDS IN ELECTRICITY INFRASTRUCTURE 4(2011), available at http://www.asce.org/uploadedFiles/Infraslructurc/Failure-to-Act/SCE41%20report- Final-lores.pdf (noting improvements in energy infrastructure due to recent investments but noting the need for more investment "to further reduce the incidence of service disruptions" and the need to "adopt new technologies and to meet the demands of a growing population and evolving economy over the next 30 years").
145. NAT'L. INST. STANDARDS & TECH., INTRODUCTION TO NISTR 7628 GUIDELINES FOR SMART GRID CYBER SECURITY 3(2010), available at http://www.nist.gov/ smartgrid/upload/nistir-7628-total.pdf ("While integrating information technologies is essential to building the Smart Grid and realizing its benefits, the same networked technologies add complexity and also introduce new intcrdependencies and vulnerabilities.").
146. See Learn More About Interconnections, OFFICE OF ELEC DELIVERY & ENERGY RELIABILITY, http://energy.gov/oe/recovcry-act/rccovery-act- interconnection-transmission-planning/learn-more-about-intcrconnections (last visited Oct. 26, 2013).
147. See U. S. DEP'T OF ENERGY, NATIONAL TRANSMISSION GRID STUDY 2(2002), available at http://cncrgy.gov/sitcs/prod/filcs/ocprod/DocumentsandMcdia/ TransmissionGrid.pdf (describing instantaneous system-wide outages).
148. See, e.g., Jon Mooallcm, Squirrel Power!, N. Y. TIMES, Aug. 31, 2013 http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/01/opinion/sunday/squirrel-powcr.html?-r=0 (cataloging reports of squirrels causing electricity outages).
149. See, e.g., S. Massoud Amin & Bruce F. Wollenberg, Toward a Smart Grid, IEEE POWER & ENERGY MAGAZINE, Scpt./Oct. 2005, at 34 (explaining the term and proposing strategies for achieving the goal of a smarter and more resilient grid).
150. See, e.g., LITOS STRATEGIC COMMC'N, THE SMART GRID: AN INTRODUCTION 34, available at http://energy.gov/sitcs/prod/filcs/ocprod/DocumentsandMedia/DOE-SG- Book-Single-Pages%281 % 29.pdf (describing the Beach Cities Microgrid, which will be able to "isolate from the utility seamlessly with little or no disruption to the loads within it and seamlessly reconnect later", and to do so "during a major grid disturbance").
151. See, e.g., Liz Enbysk, Transmission Upgrades Coming on Strong: Michigan the Latest with $90 Million for ABB Technology, SMART GRID NEWS (Feb. 23, 2012), http://www.smartgridnews.com/artman/publish/Delivcry-Transmission/ Transmission-upgradcs-coming-on-strong-Michigan-the-latcstwith-90-million-for- ABB-technology-4501.html. UmyHz-ksmPs (describing "dynamic voltage support" technologies deployed in Michigan to both improve regional reliability and accommodate wind power).
152. See, e.g., Demand Response, CAL. PUB. UTILS. COMM'N http://www.cpuc.ca. gov/PUC/cncrgy/wholesalc/01a-cawholcsalc/MRTU/06-dcmandrcsponsc.htm (last modified Dec. 9, 2008) (defining real-time telemetry as "two-way real-time communication of energy usage")
153. Demand Response Regulation Market, PJM, http://pjm.com/markets-and- operations/demand-response/dr-regulationmarket.aspx (last visited Oct. 6, 2013) (describing participants who opt to allow very short-term changes in the quantity of electricity that flows to them in order to regulate "the stability of the power system" and explaining that these participants must have "real-time telemetry" capabilities).
154. See, e.g., ALSTOM, INTEGRATING RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES 2(2011), available at http://www.alstom.com/Global/Grid/Resources/Documents/ Integrating%20Renewable%20Energy%2 OSources.pdf (describing a "Renewable Operation Portal" that uses computer technology to, for example, respond "automatically to current power balance changes").
155. JIM BLATCHFORD, CAL. INDEP. SYS. OPERATOR, CAISO PARTICIPATING INTERMITTENT RESOURCE PROGRAM FOR WIND GENERATION 11, available at http://www.uwig.org/seattlefiles/blatchford.pdf (explaining that "energy production [from wind] is unpredictable day ahead, hour ahead, and from minute to minute"). See Part II. C for further discussion of intermittency.
156. See, e.g., Earn Bill Credits by Cycling Your Central AC, COMED, https://www.comed.com/home-savings/rebates-incentives/pages/central-ac-cycling. aspx (last visited Oct. 26, 2013) (describing automated air-conditioner cycling using a wireless signal).
157. See, e.g., The Benefits of Smart Meters, CAL. PUBLIC UTILS. COMM'N, http://www.cpuc.ca.gov/PUC/energy/Demand+Response/benefits.htm (last modified Mar. 30, 2013) (noting that that smart metering "provides customers with greater control over their electricity use when coupled with timebased rates, increasing the range of different pricing plans available to customers and giving them more choice in managing their electricity consumption and bills")
158. Matthew L. Wald, 'Smart' Electric Utility Meters, Intended to Create Savings, Instead Prompt Revolt, N. Y. TIMES, Dec. 13, 2009, http://www.nytimes. com/2009/12/14/us/14meters.html (noting complaints about inaccurate meters and the higher rates necessary to recoup the costs of installing the meters, as compared to the longer-term payoffs in electricity use reductions).
159. But see Rebecca Smith, Smart Meter, Dumb Idea?, WALL ST. J., Apr. 27, 2009, http://onlme.wsj.com/article/SB124050416142448555.html (noting the cost of installing the metering infrastructure).
160. See, e.g., Energy Delivery Systems Cybersecurity, ENERGY. GOV, http://energy.gov/oe/technology-development/energy-delivery-systems- cybersecurity (last visited Oct. 26, 2013) ("Energy delivery systems include control systems, the brains that operate and monitor our energy infrastructure. Two examples of such systems are the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and the Distributed Control Systems (DCS). Most early SCADA system designs did not anticipate the security threats posed by the integration of advances in computers and communication such as off-theshelf software and operating systems, public telecommunication networks, and the Internet. Energy delivery systems have become more productive and efficient, but the energy sector is faced with an unprecedented challenge in protecting systems against cyber incidents and threats.").
161. Siobhan Gorman, Electricity Grid in U. S. Penetrated by Spies, WALL ST. J., Apr. 8, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123914805204099085.html.
162. For a discussion of smart grid and privacy issues, see H. Russell Frisby, Jr. & Jonathan P. Trotta, The Smart Grid: The Complexities and Importance of Data Privacy and Security, 19 COMMLAW CONSPECTUS 297 (2011).
163. See discussion of cyber security issues and threats at N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., RELIABILITY CONSIDERATIONS FROM THE INTEGRATION OF SMART GRID, 69-80(2010), available at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/oeprod/ DocumentsandMedia/SGTF-Report-Final.pdf;
164. NAT'L. INST. STANDARDS & TECH., supra note 145.
165. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., ENSURING RELIABILITY OF THE BULK POWER SYSTEM 1(2012), available at http://www.nerc.com/AboutNERC/Documents/ NERC%200ne%20Pager%20DEC12.pdf (discussing NERC's progress in drafting new reliability standards).
166. Mason Willrich, Electricity Transmission Policy for America: Enabling a Smart Grid, End-to-End 7(Energy Innovation, working Paper No. 09-003, 2009), available at http://web.mit.edu/ipc/research/energy/pdf/EIP-09-003.pdf (noting in 2009 that IOUs "serve almost 75% of America's electricity customers and that "[o]wnership of America's electric power industry is divided among about 3100 separate entities").
167. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., HISTORY OF NERC 2(2012), available at http://www.nerc.com/AboutNERC/Documents/History-Decl2.pdf.
168. Compliance & Enforcement, N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/pa/comp/Pages/default.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013) ("NERC relies on the Regional Entities to enforce the NERC Reliability Standards with Bulk-Power System owners, operators, and users through approved regional delegation agreements.").
169. See Standards, N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/pa/ stand/pages/default.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
170. Compliance & Enforcement, supra note 168 ("If resolution cannot be achieved at the regional level, NERC maintains an appeals process to hear disputes.").
171. For maps showing that regional entities and RTOs/ISOs do not always overlap, Regional Entities, N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/ AboutNERC/keyplayers/Pages/Regional-Entities.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013)
172. ISO/RTO COUNCIL, ISO RTO Operating Regions, http://www.isorto.Org/site/c. jhKQIZPBImE/b.2604471/k.B14E/Map.htm (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
173. 16 U. S. C. § 824o (bH-(c) (2005).
174. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., supra note 163.
175. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., MILESTONES: NERC RELIABILITY STANDARDS 1(2007), available at http://www.nerc.com/files/standardsmilestones.pdf.
176. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/ (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
177. Scott Grover, FERC Guidance Order Shows Inter-Agency Tension, 23 NAT. RESOURCES & ENV'T., 61, 61, 63 (2009) (describing FERC as "the final arbiter on the enforcement of reliability standards").
178. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., supra note 163.
179. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., CYBER SECURITY-CRITICAL CYBER ASSET IDENTIFICATION 1(2011), available at http://www.nerc.com/files/CIP-002-4.pdf (last visited Aug. 24, 2013).
180. See generally N. AM. ELEC RELIABILITY CORP., CYBER SECURITY STANDARDS TRANSITION GUIDANCE (2013), available at http://www.nerc.com/files/cyber- security-standards-transition-guidance.pdf.
181. See generally N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., supra note 181.
182. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., CYBER SECURITY-PERSONNEL AND TRAINING 1-2(2011), available at http://www.nerc.com/files/CIP-004-4.pdf.
183. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., CYBER SECURITY-SECURITY MANAGEMENT CONTROLS 1-2(2011), available at http://www.nerc.com/files/CIP-O03-4.pdf;
184. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., CYBER SECURITY-INCIDENT REPORTING AND RESPONSE PLANNING, 1-2(2011), available at http://ww.nerc.cora/files/CIP-008-4. pdf.
185. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP. STANDARD DEVELOPMENT TIMELINE 5(2012), available at http://www.nerc.com/docs/standards/sar/EOP-004-2-redline-to- initial-ballot-2012Apr24-Revl.pdf.
186. See Searchable Notice of Penalty Spreadsheet, N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/pa/comp/Pages/Enforcement-and-Mitigation. aspx (follow "For the Searchable Notice of Penalty Spreadsheet click here" hyperlink) (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
187. Brian Wingfield, Power-Grid Cyber Attack Seen Leaving Millions in Dark for Months, BLOOMBERG (Jan 31, 2012, 11:00 PM), http://www.bloomberg.com/news/ 2012-02-01/cyber-attack-onu-s-power-grid-seen-leaving-millions-in-dark-for- months.html.
188. See David E. Sanger et al., Chinese Army Unit Is Seen as Tied to Hacking Against U. S., N. Y. TIMES, Feb. 18, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/19/ technology/chinas-army-is-seen-as-tied-tohacking-against-us.html?pagewanted= all&-r=0 (describing an early release of a report by Mandiant that identifies the hacking problem but noting that "China's defense ministry has denied that it is responsible for initiating attacks").
189. Exec. Order No. 13, 636, 78 Fed. Reg. 11, 739 (Feb. 12, 2013).
190. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., supra note 169.
191. Milestones: NERC Reliability Standards, supra note 175.
192. See, e.g., About FRCC, FL. RELIABILITY COORDINATING COUNCIL, INC., https://www.frcc. com/AboutUs/default.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
193. Board of Trustees, N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/ gov/bot/Pages/default.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
194. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., APPENDIX 3D: REGISTERED BALLOT BODY CRITERIA (2013), available at http://www.nerc.com/FilingsOrders/us/ RuleOfProcedureDL/Appendix-3D-BallotBodyCriteria-20140701.pdf (describing the many entities eligible to be in the Registered Ballot Body)
195. Registered Ballot Body, N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., https://standards.nerc.net/rbb.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013) (listing the active members).
196. Key Players, N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/ AboutNERC/key players/Pages/default.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
197. Member Representatives Committee (MRC), N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/gov/bot/MRC/Pages/default.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
198. Standards Committee (SC), N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/comm/SC/Pages/default.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
199. Members, N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., http://www.nerc.com/gov/Pages/ Members.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
200. Registered Ballot Body, supra note 197.
201. See, e.g., SW. POWER POOL, SOUTHWEST POWER POOL REGIONAL ENTITY STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT PROCESS MANUAL 15-16(2007), available at http://www.spp. org/publications/SPP%20RE%20Standards%20Development%20Process%20Manual.pdf.
202. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., STANDARD PROCESSES MANUAL 12(2013), available at http://www.nerc.com/comm/sc/Docunients/Appendix-3A- StandardsProcessesManual.pdf.
203. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., supra note 205, at 16, 18.
204. Registered Ballot Body, supra note 197.
205. See generally N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., DRAFTING IEAM GUIDELINES (2009), available at http://www.nerc.com/pa/Stand/Resources/Documents/ NERCDraftingTeamGiudelines EndorsedbySCApril2009.pdf;
206. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., supra note 215.
207. See, e.g., LAWRENCE E. JONES, STRATEGIES AND DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS FOR INTEGRATING VARIABLE ENERGY RESOURCES IN CONTROL CENTERS FOR RELIABLE GRID OPERATIONS 1, 2, available at http://www.eere.energy.gov/wtad/pdfydoe- wmdJntegration-report.pdf (summarizing studies addressing the integration of wind onto the grid).
208. See U. S. DEPT. OF ENERGY, 20% WIND ENERGY BY 2030(2008), available at http://www.20percentwind.org/20percent-wind-energy-report-revOct08.pdf (describing as-yet unrealized potential)
209. Utility-Scale Land-Based 80-Meter Wind Maps, U. S. DEP'T. OF ENERGY, http://www.wind poweringamerica.gov/wind-maps.asp (last updated Sept. 30, 2013).
210. See Billy Roberts, Concentrating Solar Resource of the United States, NAT'L. RENEWABLE ENERGY LAB. (Oct. 20, 2008), http://vvww.nrel.gov/gis/images/ map-csp-national-lo-res.jpg.
211. See, e.g., Press Release, Midcontinent Indep. Sys. Operator, Inc., MISO Board Approves 215 New Transmission Projects, (Dec. 8, 2011), available at https://www.misoenergy.org/About Us/MediaCenter/PressReleases/Pages/ MISOBoardApproves215NewTransmissionProjects.aspx (describing "a comprehensive long-term regional plan for the electric grid that will bring more than $2 billion in annual benefits for decades to come for energy consumers throughout the Midwest" and that will help the RTO meet its reliability mandates).
212. See, e.g., U. S. ENERGY INFO. ADMIN., LEVEUZED COST OF NEW GENERATION RESOURCES IN THE ANNUAL ENERGY OUTLOOK 2013(2013), available at http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/electricity-generation.pdf (showing wind projects as costing 89.6 2011$/megawatt hour for new plants entering service in 2018, as compared to conventional coal at 100.1 2011$/megawatt hour)
213. Jeff Kart, Renewables Cheaper than Coal, Michigan Regulators Say, MIDWEST ENERGY NEWS (Feb. 24, 2012), http://www.midwestenergynews.com/2012/02/24/ michigan-regulators-say-renewablescheaper-than-coal/ (noting Michigan Public Service Commission figures, which estimate the average cost of renewables at "$91.19 per megawatt hour, compared to $133 per megawatt hour for a new coal plant").
214. See 20% WIND ENERGY BY 2030, supra note 221, at 9.
215. Most states have a requirement that energy prices be "just and reasonable." See, e.g., 220 ILCS 5/9-101 (2013). FERC does the same for wholesale sales, although most wholesale sales are now deregulated and are set by the market rate. 16 U. S. C. § 824d (a) (2012). Twenty-nine states also require that a certain percentage of electricity come from renewable sources. See DATABASE OF STATE INCENTIVES FOR RENEWABLES AND EFFICIENCY, supra note 21.
216. See PAUL DENHOLM ET AL., THE ROLE OF ENERGY STORAGE WITH RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY GENERATION, NAT'L. RENEWABLE ENERGY LAB. (2010), available at http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fyl0osti/47187.pdf ("Both solar photovoltaics (PV) and wind energy have variable and uncertain (sometimes referred to as 'intermittent') output, which are unlike the dispatchable sources used for the majority of electricity generation in the United States.").
217. Probability-Based Software for Grid Optimization, U. S. DEPT. OF ENERGY, http://arpae.energy.gov/?q=arpa-e-projects/probability-based-software-grid- optimization (last visited Oct. 27, 2013) (explaining that "Sandia National Laboratories is working with several commercial and university partners to develop software for market management systems (MMSs) that enable greater use of renewable energy sources throughout the grid" and that the intermittency of solar and wind introduces "complications for MMSs, which have trouble accommodating the multiple sources of price and supply uncertainties associated with bringing these new types of energy into the grid").
218. In Colorado, one industry-funded study suggests that carbon emissions increased following the introduction of wind power as coal plants cycled up and down to accommodate this new influx of variable energy. See BENTEK ENERGY, LLC, HOW LESS BECAME MORE: WIND, POWER AND UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES IN THE COLORADO ENERGY MARKET (2010), available at http://westernenergyalliance.org/wp-content/ uploads/BENTEK-ExecutiveSummary%20-HowLessBecame More.pdf.
219. But see Lauren Valentino et al., System-Wide Emissions Implications of Increased Wind Power Penetration, 46 ENVTL. SCI. & TECH. 4200 (2012) (offering lower emissions numbers). While the use of natural gas as a back-up resource is much more efficient, the barriers described in this paper, from long-term contracts to entrenched infrastructural investments, make it more difficult to rely on the most efficient generation sources as complements to variable ones.
220. Cf. Renewable Energy: Wind Forecast Improvement Project, NAT'L. OCEANIC & ATMOSPHERIC ADMIN., http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/psd3/wfip/ (last visited Oct. 27, 2013).
221. Interconnection for Wind Energy, Orger No. 661, 111 FERC ¶ 61, 353 (2005)
222. (codified at 18 C. F. R. pt. 35).
223. Promoting Wholesale Competition Through Open Access Non-Discriminatory Transmission Services by Public Utilities; Recovery of Stranded Costs by Public Utilities and Transmitting Utilities, 61 Fed. Reg. 21, 540 (May 10, 1996)
224. (codified at 18 C. F. R. pt. 35 and 385)
225. Open Access Same-Time Information System (formerly Real-Time Information Networks) and Standards of Conduct, 61 Fed. Reg. 21, 737 (May 10, 1996)
226. (codified at 18 C. F. R. pt. 37)
227. Regional Transmission Organizations, 65 Fed. Reg. 809 (Jan. 6, 2000)
228. (codified at 18 C. F. R. pt. 35)
229. see also Michael H. Dworkin & Rachel Aslin Goldwasser, Ensuring Consideration of the Public Interest in the Governance and Accountability of Regional Transmission Organizations, 28 ENERGY LJ. 543, 551-54 (2007).
230. Regional Transmission Organizations, Order No. 2000, 89 FERC ¶ 61, 285 (1999)
231. (codified at 18 C. F. R. pt. 35).
232. Regional Transmission Organization (RTO) I Independent System Operators (ISO), FED. ENERGY REGULATORY COMM'N, http://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/ indus-act/rto.asp (last updated Oct. 17, 2013).
233. CAL, INDEP. SYS. OPERATOR CORP. ET AL., 2011 ISO/RTO METRICS REPORT 145(2011), available at https://www.misoenergy.org/Library/Repository/ Tarif£/FERC%20Filings/2011-08-31%20Docket%20No.%20AD10-5-000.pdf.
234. The MISO states include Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and parts of Kentucky, Missouri, Montana, and Ohio. Electric Power Markets: Midwest (MISO), FED. ENERGY REGULATORY COMM'N, http://www.ferc.gov/market-oversight/mktelectric/midwest.asp (last updated Oct. 11, 2013).
235. CAL. INDEP. SYS. OPERATOR CORP. ET AL., supra note 247, at 158, 160.
236. Alexandra B. Klass & Elizabeth J. Wilson, Interstate Transmission Challenges for Renewable Energy: A Federalism Mismatch, 65 VAND. L. REV. 1801, 1870-71 (2012).
237. See Ill. Commerce Comm'n v. Fed. Energy Regulatory Comm'n, 721 F.3d 764 (7th Cir. 2013).
238. ISO/RTO COUNCIL, INCREASING RENEWABLE RESOURCES: HOW ISOS AND RTOS ARE HELPING MEET THIS PUBLIC POLICY OBJECTIVE ES-1-2(2007), available at http://www.isorto.org/atf/cf/%7B5B4E85C6-7EAC-40A0-8DC3-003829518EBD%7D/ IRC-RENEWABLES-REPORT-1016O7-FINAL.pdf.
239. Press Release, MISO, Miso Furthers Wind Integration into Market (June 1, 2011), available at https://www.misoenergy.org/AboutUs/MediaCenter/ PressReleases/Pages/MISOFurthersIntegrationof WindResources.aspx;
240. see also generally MISO, DISPATCHABLE INTERMITTENT RESOURCE IMPLEMENTATION GUIDE (2011), available at https://www.misoenergy.org/Library/ Repository/Report/DIR%20Implementation%20Guide.pdf.
241. For a discussion of integrating intermittent renewable resources into energy markets, see Walter R. Hall II, et al., American Bar Association Energy and Resources Committees, Restructuring of the Electric Industry, 2008 ABA ENVTL. ENERGY & RESOURCES L.: YEAR IN REV. 296;
242. Audun Botterud et al., Wind Power Forecasting in U. S. Electricity Markets, 23 ELECTRICITY J. 71 (2010)
243. J. C. Smith et al., Impact of Variable Renewable Energy on US Electricity Markets (draft manuscript on file with authors)
244. Li Zhanget et al.. Generation and Demand Management Improvement with Increased Variable Generation: A Midwest ISO Perspective, IEEE (2011).
245. See Order Conditionally Accepting in Part and Rejecting in Part Tariff Filing and Requiring Compliance Filings, 134 FERC ¶ 61, 141 (Feb. 28, 2011)
246. ISO/RTO PLANNING COMM., ISO/RTO ELECTRIC SYSTEM PLANNING: CURRENT PRACTICES, EXPANSION PLANS, AND PLANNING ISSUES 156(2006), available at http://www.ercot. com/news/presentations/2006/IRC-PC-Planning-Report-Final-02- 06-06.pdf.
247. Sw. POWER POOL, INTEGRATED TRANSMISSION PLANNING PROCESS DOCUMENT 6(2009), available at http://www.spp. org/publications/itp-process-final- 20091029.pdf.
248. Sw. POWER POOL, WIND INTEGRATION 1(2010), available at http://www.spp. org/publications/SPP-Wind-Integration-QA.pdf.
249. Sw. POWER POOL, supra note 260, at 6;
250. Sw. POWER POOL, supra note 260, at 6.
251. ISO/RTO PLANNING COMM., supra note 258, at 10.
252. Sw. POWER POOL, supra note 260, at 7.
253. See generally NATHAN RICHARDSON ET AL., THE STATE OF STATE SHALE GAS REGULATION (2013), available at http://www.rff.org/rff/documents/RFF-Rpt- StateofStateRegs-Report.pdf (showing substantial differences among states' regulations as well states that lack regulations for certain areas of well development, and describing recent regulatory changes, which are not uniform).
254. See generally MILES KEOGH & CHRISTINA CODY, CYBERSECURITY FOR STATE REGULATORS 5(2012), available at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/ NARUC%20Cybersecurity %20for%20State%20Regulators%20Primer%20-%20June%202012.pdf (suggesting states are "implementing energy assurance plans across the country that help respond to vulnerabilities, as well as preventing and protecting against threats").
255. See Cyber Security Measures a Must for All Utilities, Expert Tells Seattle Gathering, PUBLIC POWER WEEKLY (June 25, 2012), http://www. naylometworlc.com/app-ppw/articles/index-v2. asp?aid=180746&issueID=23334 ("Many public power utilities run enterprise and operations programs on a single flat network, he said. Those computer systems should be run on separate networks-one for enterprise (billing, engineering, desktop users) and one for operations (substation, SCADA, metering, distribution, generation and transmission).").
256. See Cyber Security Measures a Must for All Utilities, Expert Tells Seattle Gathering, supra note 289 (suggesting that small utilities may view the cybersecurity standards as being important only for large utilities).
257. Cf. N. AM. ELEC. RELIABILITY CORP., 2012 ANNUAL REPORT 13(2013), available at http://www.nerc.com/files/ NERC%202012%20Annual%20Report%20%28MAR13%29.pdf (concluding in a self-assessment that "[r]liability of the bulk power system remains adequate with little change in trends between 2008 and 2011" but noting some significant reliability issues).
258. Candidate MVP Portfolio Study, MISO, https://www.midwestiso.org/Planning/ Pages/MVPAnalysis.aspx (last visited Oct. 28, 2013) ("High-level study updates were provided at the Planning Advisory Committee (PAC), Planning Subcommittee (PS) and the Subregional Planning Meetings (SPMs). Candidate MVP Technical Study Task Force (TSTF) meetings were also held throughout the study on at least a monthly basis. Finally, weekly updates were sent to stakeholders via the Planning Advisory Committee (PAC) mailing list.").
259. Past Reviews, STRONGER, http://www.strongerinc.org/past-reviews (last visited Oct. 28, 2013) (showing that the organization has completed reviews of hydraulic fracturing regulations in six states).
260. See, e.g., SEC. OF ENERGY ADVISORY BD., U. S. DEP'T. OF ENERGY, SHALE GAS PRODUCTION SUBCOMMITTEE 90-DAY REPORT (2011), available at http://www.shalegas. energy. gov/resources/081811-90-day-report-final.pdf.
261. See, e.g., ENERGY FACILITY SITE EVALUATION COUNCIL, http://www.efeec.wa. gov/default.shtm (last visited Oct. 28, 2013)
262. see also generally Hannah J. Wiseman, Expanding Regional Renewable Governance, 35 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 477 (2011) (discussing these and other unique regional institutions).
263. See, e.g., Secretary Salazar Announces Approval of Cape Wind Energy Project on Outer Continental Shelf of Massachusetts, U. S. DEP'T OF INTERIOR (Apr. 28, 2010), http://www.doi.gov/news/doinews/Secretary-Salazar-Announces- Approval-of-Cape-Wind-Energy-Project-on-Outer-Continental-Shelf-off- Massachusetts.cfm (describing negotiation between the Dept. of the Interior and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation)
264. U. S. DEP'T OF INTERIOR, Cape Wind Energy Project: Final Environmental Impact Statement, OCS Pub. No. 2008-040 (describing review and input in the approval process by the Dept. of the Interior, the Coast Guard, the National Marine Fisheries Service, and other agencies).
265. See, e.g., Garrick Pursley & Hannah Wiseman, Local Energy, 60 EMORY L. J. 877 (2011) (arguing for local governance of distributed energy installation above a federal floor).
266. See, e.g., Sara C. Bronin, Curbing Energy Sprawl with Microgrids, 43 CONN. L. REV. 547, 571-72 (2011) (describing opportunities for microgrids and policy needs).