Solving Richards Equation for snow improves snowpack meltwater runoff estimations in detailed multi-layer snowpack model

Cryosphere

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 257-274

  Wever, N ^a   Fierz, C ^a   Mitterer, C ^a   Hirashima, H ^b   Lehning, M ^a,c  

^a WSL INSTITUTE FOR SNOW AND AVALANCHE RESEARCH SLF   (Switzerland)

^b National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention   (Japan)

^c EPFL   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPINE ENVIRONMENT; ENERGY BALANCE; HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE; MELTWATER; RICHARDS EQUATION; RUNOFF; SNOW COVER; SNOWPACK; WATER BUDGET;

EID: 84896881204     PISSN: 19940416     EISSN: 19940424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/tc-8-257-2014     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. Bartelt, P. and Lehning, M.: A physical SNOWPACK model for the Swiss avalanche warning Part I: Numerical model, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 35, 123-145, doi:10.1016/S0165-232X(02)00074-5, 2002.
2. Baunach, T., Fierz, C., Satyawali, P. K., and Schneebeli, M.: A model for kinetic grain growth, Ann. Glaciol., 32, 1-6, doi:10.3189/172756401781819427, 2001.
3. Boone, A. and Etchevers, P.: An Intercomparison of Three Snow Schemes of Varying Complexity Coupled to the Same Land Surface Model: Local-Scale Evaluation at an Alpine Site, J. Hydrometeorol., 2, 374-394, doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2001)002<0374:AIOTSS>2.0.CO;2, 2001.
4. Brun, E., Martin, E., Simon, V., Gendre, C., and Coléou, C.: An energy and mass model of snow cover suitable for operational avalanche forecasting, J. Glaciol., 35, 333-342, 1989.
5. Calonne, N., Geindreau, C., Flin, F., Morin, S., Lesaffre, B., Rolland du Roscoat, S., and Charrier, P.: 3-D image-based numerical computations of snow permeability: links to specific surface area, density, and microstructural anisotropy, The Cryosphere, 6, 939-951, doi:10.5194/tc-6-939-2012, 2012.
6. Carmagnola, C. M., Morin, S., Lafaysse, M., Domine, F., Lesaffre, B., Lejeune, Y., Picard, G., and Arnaud, L.: Implementation and evaluation of prognostic representations of the optical diameter of snow in the detailed snowpack model SURFEX/ISBA-Crocus, The Cryosphere Discuss., 7, 4443-4500, doi:10.5194/tcd-7-4443-2013, 2013.
7. Celia, M. A., Bouloutas, E. T., and Zarba, R. L.: A general mass-conservative numerical solution for the unsaturated flow equation, Water Resour. Res., 26, 1483-1496, doi:10.1029/WR026i007p01483, 1990.
8. Colbeck, S. C.: A theory of water percolation in snow, J. Glaciol., 11, 369-385, 1972.
9. Colbeck, S. C.: The capillary effects on water percolation in homogeneous snow, J. Glaciol., 13, 85-97, 1974.
10. Coléou, C. and Lesaffre, B.: Irreducible water saturation in snow: experimental results in a cold laboratory, Ann. Glaciol., 26, 64-68, 1998.
11. Conway, H. and Benedict, R.: Infiltration of water into snow, Water Resour. Res., 30, 641-649, doi:10.1029/93WR03247, 1994.
12. Conway, H. and Raymond, C. F.: Snow stability during rain, J. Glaciol., 39, 635-642, 1993.
13. Daanen, R. and Nieber, J.: Model for Coupled Liquid Water Flow and Heat Transport with Phase Change in a Snowpack, J. Cold Reg. Eng., 23, 43-68, doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0887-381X(2009)23:2(43), 2009.
14. Davis, R. E., Jordan, R., Daly, S., and Koenig, G. G.: Model Validation: Perspectives in Hydrological Science, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2001.
15. Domine, F., Morin, S., Brun, E., Lafaysse, M., and Carmagnola, C. M.: Seasonal evolution of snow permeability under equi-temperature and temperature-gradient conditions, The Cryosphere, 7, 1915-1929, doi:10.5194/tc-7-1915-2013, 2013.
16. Essery, R., Morin, S., Lejeune, Y., and Ménard, C. B.: A comparison of 1701 snow models using observations from an alpine site, Adv. Water Resour., 55, 131-148, doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.07.013, 2013.
17. Fierz, C., Armstrong, R., Durand, Y., Etchevers, P., Greene, E., Mc-Clung, D., Nishimura, K., Satyawali, P., and Sokratov, S.: The International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground (ICSSG), Tech. Rep., IHP-VII Technical Documents in Hydrology No. 83, IACS Contribution No. 1, UNESCO-IHP, 2009.
18. Flerchinger, G. N. and Saxton, K. E.: Simultaneous heat and water model of a freezing snow-residue-soil system: I. Theory and development., Trans. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng., 32, 565-571, 1989.
19. Førland, E., Allerup, P., Dahlström, B., Elomaa, E., Jónsson, T., Madsen, H., Perälä, Rissanen, P., Vedin, H., and Vejen, F.: Manual for operational correction of Nordic precipitation data, Tech. Rep. 24/96, Norske Meteorologiske Institutt, 1996.
20. Goodison, B., Louie, P., and Yang, D.: WMO Solid precipitation measurement intercomparison, Final Report, Tech. Rep., World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 1998.
21. Hirashima, H., Kamiishi, I., Yamaguchi, S., Sato, A., and Lehning, M.: Application of a numerical snowpack model to estimate fulldepth avalanche danger, in: Proceedings of the 2010 International Snow Science Workshop, 2010a.
22. Hirashima, H., Yamaguchi, S., Sato, A., and Lehning, M.: Numerical modeling of liquid water movement through layered snow based on new measurements of the water retention curve, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 64, 94-103, doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2010.09.003, 2010b.
23. Huang, K., Mohanty, B., and van Genuchten, M.: A new convergence criterion for the modified Picard iteration method to solve the variably saturated flow equation, J. Hydrol., 178, 69-91, doi:10.1016/0022-1694(95)02799- 8, 1996.
24. Illangasekare, T. H., Walter Jr., R. J., Meier, M. F., and Pfeffer, W. T.: Modeling of meltwater infiltration in subfreezing snow, Water Resour. Res., 26, 1001-1012, doi:10.1029/WR026i005p01001, 1990.
25. Ippisch, O., Vogel, H.-J., and Bastian, P.: Validity limits for the van Genuchten-Mualem model and implications for parameter estimation and numerical simulation, Adv.Water Resour., 29, 1780-1789, doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2005.12. 011, 2006.
26. Jin, J., Gao, X., Yang, Z.-L., Bales, R. C., Sorooshian, S., Dickinson, R. E., Sun, S. F., and Wu, G. X.: Comparative Analyses of Physically Based Snowmelt Models for Climate Simulations, J. Climate, 12, 2643-2657, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1999)012<2643:CAOPBS>2.0.CO;2, 1999.
27. Jordan, P.: Meltwater movement in a deep snowpack: 2. Simulation model, Water Resour. Res., 19, 979-985, doi:10.1029/WR019i004p00979, 1983.
28. Jordan, R.: A one-dimensional temperature model for a snow cover: Technical documentation SNTHERM.89, Tech. Rep. Spec. Rep. 657, U.S. Army Cold Reg. Res. Eng. Lab., Hanover, NH, 1991.
29. Jordan, R.: Effects of capillary discontinuities on water flow and water retention in layered snowcovers., in: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Snow and Related Manifestations, edited by: Agrawal, K. C., Vol. 94, 157-170, Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment, Manali, India, 1996.
30. Katsushima, T., Yamaguchi, S., Kumakura, T., and Sato, A.: Experimental analysis of preferential flow in dry snowpack, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 85, 206-216, doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2012.09.012, 2013.
31. Kattelmann, R.: Macropores in snowpacks of Sierra Nevada, Ann. Glaciol., 6, 272-273, 1985.
32. Kattelmann, R.: Snowmelt lysimeters in the evaluation of snowmelt models, Ann. Glaciol., 31, 406-410, doi:10.3189/172756400781820048, 2000.
33. Koster, R. D., Mahanama, S. P. P., Livneh, B., Lettenmaier, D. P., and Reichle, R. H.: Skill in streamflow forecasts derived from large-scale estimates of soil moisture and snow, Nat. Geosci., 3, 613-616, doi:10.1038/ngeo944, 2010.
34. Lehning, M., Bartelt, P., Brown, B., and Fierz, C.: A physical SNOWPACK model for the Swiss avalanche warning Part III: Meteorological forcing, thin layer formation and evaluation, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 35, 169-184, doi:10.1016/S0165-232X(02)00072-1, 2002a.
35. Lehning, M., Bartelt, P., Brown, B., Fierz, C., and Satyawali, P.: A physical SNOWPACK model for the Swiss avalanche warning Part II. Snow microstructure, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 35, 147-167, doi:10.1016/S0165-232X(02) 00073-3, 2002b.
36. Mahanama, S. P., Livneh, B., Koster, R., Lettenmaier, D., and Reichle, R.: Soil Moisture, Snow, and Seasonal Streamflow Forecasts in the United States, J. Hydrometeorol., 13, 189/203, doi:10.1175/JHM-D-11-046.1, 2012.
37. Marks, D., Domingo, J., Susong, D., Link, T., and Garen, D.: A spatially distributed energy balance snowmelt model for application in mountain basins, Hydrol. Process., 13, 1935-1959, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(199909)13:12/ 13<1935::AIDHYP868>3.0.CO;2-C, 1999.
38. Marks, D., Link, T., Winstral, A., and Garen, D.: Simulating snowmelt processes during rain-on-snow over a semi-arid mountain basin, Ann. Glaciol., 32, 195-202, doi:10.3189/172756401781819751, 2001.
39. Marsh, P.: Water flux in melting snow covers, Vol. 1, Advances in Porous Media, 61-124, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1991.
40. Marsh, P.: Snowcover formation and melt: recent advances and future prospects, Hydrol. Process., 13, 2117-2134, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(199910) 13:14/15<2117::AIDHYP869>3.0.CO;2-9, 1999.
41. Marsh, P.: Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences., chap. 161: Water Flow Through Snow and Firn, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, doi:10.1002/0470848944. hsa167, 2006.
42. Mazurkiewicz, A. B., Callery, D. G., and McDonnell, J. J.: Assessing the controls of the snow energy balance and water available for runoff in a rain-on-snow environment, J. Hydrol., 354, 1-14, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.12. 027, 2008.
43. McCord, J. T.: Application of Second-Type Boundaries in Unsaturated Flow Modeling, Water Resour. Res., 27, 3257-3260, doi:10.1029/91WR02158, 1991.
44. McCuen, R., Knight, Z., and Cutter, A.: Evaluation of the Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency Index, J. Hydrol. Eng., 11, 597-602, doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1084- 0699(2006)11:6(597), 2006.
45. Mitterer, C., Hirashima, H., and Schweizer, J.: Wet-snow instabilities: comparison of measured and modelled liquid water content and snow stratigraphy, Ann. Glaciol., 52, 201-208, doi:10.3189/172756411797252077, 2011.
46. Morin, S., Lejeune, Y., Lesaffre, B., Panel, J.-M., Poncet, D., David, P., and Sudul, M.: An 18-yr long (1993-2011) snow and meteorological dataset from a mid-altitude mountain site (Col de Porte, France, 1325m alt.) for driving and evaluating snowpack models, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 4, 13-21, doi:10.5194/essd-4-13-2012, 2012.
47. Mott, R., Schirmer, M., Bavay, M., Grünewald, T., and Lehning, M.: Understanding snow-transport processes shaping the mountain snow-cover, The Cryosphere, 4, 545-559, doi:10.5194/tc-4-545-2010, 2010.
48. Mualem, Y.: A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media, Water Resour. Res., 12, 513-522, doi:10.1029/ WR012i003p00513, 1976.
49. Nash, J. and Sutcliffe, J.: River flow forecasting through conceptual models part I-A discussion of principles, J. Hydrol., 10, 282-290, doi:10.1016/0022-1694(70)90255-6, 1970.
50. Paniconi, C. and Putti, M.: A comparison of Picard and Newton iteration in the numerical solution of multidimensional variably saturated flow problems, Water Resour. Res., 30, 3357-3374, doi:10.1029/94WR02046, 1994.
51. Peitzsch, E., Karl, B., and Kathy, H.:Water movement and capillary barriers in a stratified and inclined snowpack, in: Proceedings Whistler 2008 International Snow Science Workshop September 21-27, 2008, 179-187, 2008.
52. Rathfelder, K. and Abriola, L. M.: Mass conservative numerical solutions of the head-based Richards equation,Water Resour. Res., 30, 2579-2586, doi:10.1029/94WR01302, 1994.
53. Richards, L.: Capillary conduction of liquids through porous mediums, J. Appl. Phys., 1, 318-333, doi:10.1063/1.1745010, 1931.
54. Schmucki, E., Marty, C., Fierz, C., and Lehning, M.: Evaluation of modelled snow depth and snow water equivalent at three contrasting sites in Switzerland using SNOWPACK simulations driven by different meteorological data input, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 99, 27-37, doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2013.12. 004, 2014.
55. Schneebeli, M.: Development and stability of preferential flow paths in a layered snowpack, in: Biogeochemistry of Seasonally Snow-Covered Catchments (Proceedings of a Boulder Symposium July 1995), edited by: Tonnessen, K., Williams, M., and Tranter, M., 89-95, AHS Publ. no. 228, 1995.
56. Seyfried, M. S., Grant, L. E., Marks, D., Winstral, A., and McNamara, J.: Simulated soil water storage effects on streamflow generation in a mountainous snowmelt environment, Idaho, USA, Hydrol. Process., 23, 858-873, doi:10.1002/hyp.7211, 2009.
57. Shimizu, H.: Air permeability of deposited snow, Institute of Low Temperature Science, Sapporo, Japan, 1970.
58. Stössel, F., Guala, M., Fierz, C., Manes, C., and Lehning, M.: Micrometeorological and morphological observations of surface hoar dynamics on a mountain snow cover, Water Resour. Res., 46, W04511, doi:10.1029/2009WR008198, 2010.
59. Szymkiewicz, A. and Helmig, R.: Comparison of conductivity averaging methods for one-dimensional unsaturated flow in layered soils, Adv. Water Resour., 34, 1012-1025, doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2011.05.011, 2011.
60. van Genuchten, M. T.: A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44, 892-898, doi:10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x, 1980.
61. Vionnet, V., Brun, E., Morin, S., Boone, A., Faroux, S., Le Moigne, P., Martin, E., and Willemet, J.-M.: The detailed snowpack scheme Crocus and its implementation in SURFEX v7.2, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 773-791, doi:10.5194/gmd-5-773-2012, 2012.
62. Waldner, P. A., Schneebeli, M., Schultze-Zimmermann, U., and Flühler, H.: Effect of snow structure on water flow and solute transport, Hydrol. Process., 18, 1271-1290, doi:10.1002/hyp.1401, 2004.
63. Walter, B., Horender, S., Gromke, C., and Lehning, M.: Measurements of the pore-scale water flow through snow using Fluorescent Particle Tracking Velocimetry, Water Resour. Res., 49, 7448-7456, doi:10.1002/2013WR013960, 2013.
64. Winstral, A., Elder, K., and Davis, R. E.: Spatial Snow Modeling of Wind-Redistributed Snow Using Terrain-Based Parameters, J. Hydrometeorol., 3, 524-538, doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2002)003<0524:SSMOWR>2.0.CO;2, 2002.
65. Yamaguchi, S., Katsushima, T., Sato, A., and Kumakura, T.: Water retention curve of snow with different grain sizes, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 64, 87-93, doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2010.05.008, 2010.
66. Zanotti, F., Endrizzi, S., Bertoldi, G., and Rigon, R.: The GEOTOP snow module, Hydrol. Process., 18, 3667-3679, doi:10.1002/hyp.5794, 2004.