Emerging organic contaminants in surface water and groundwater: A first overview of the situation in Italy

Science of the Total Environment

Volumn 481, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 280-295

  Meffe, Raffaella ^a   de Bustamante, Irene ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALCALÁ   (Spain)

Author keywords

Emerging organic contaminants; Estrogens; Industrials; Pesticides; Pharmaceuticals; Surface groundwater

Indexed keywords

EMERGING ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS; ESTROGENS; GROUNDWATER CONCENTRATIONS; GROUNDWATER SAMPLING; INDUSTRIALS; RESEARCH ACTIVITIES; SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATERS; SURFACE-GROUNDWATER;

DRUG PRODUCTS; GROUNDWATER; GROUNDWATER POLLUTION; PESTICIDES; RESEARCH; SURFACE WATER RESOURCES; SURFACE WATERS;

GROUNDWATER RESOURCES;

ANALGESIC AGENT; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; ANTIULCER AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BRONCHODILATING AGENT; DIURETIC AGENT; EMERGING ORGANIC COMPOUND; ESTROGEN; GROUND WATER; ILLICIT DRUG; INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL; INSECT REPELLENT; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; ORGANIC COMPOUND; PESTICIDE; SURFACE WATER; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); DRUG; ESTROGENIC COMPOUND; GROUNDWATER POLLUTION; ORGANIC COMPOUND; ORGANIC POLLUTANT; PESTICIDE; SURFACE WATER; WATER POLLUTION;

CONCENTRATION (PARAMETERS); CONTROLLED STUDY; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; ITALY; LIMIT OF DETECTION; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY; WATER CONTAMINATION; WATER SAMPLING;

ITALY;

EMERGING ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS; ESTROGENS; INDUSTRIALS; PESTICIDES; PHARMACEUTICALS; SURFACE-GROUNDWATER;

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; ESTROGENS; FRESH WATER; GROUNDWATER; ITALY; ORGANIC CHEMICALS; PESTICIDES; PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS; WATER POLLUTANTS, CHEMICAL; WATER POLLUTION, CHEMICAL;

EID: 84896855479     PISSN: 00489697     EISSN: 18791026     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.02.053     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Al Aukidy M., Verlicchi P., Jelic A., Petrovic M., Barceló D. Monitoring release of pharmaceutical compounds: occurrence and environmental risk assessment of two WWTP effluents and their receiving bodies in the Po Valley, Italy. Sci Total Environ 2012, 438:15-25.
2. Ambre J. The urinary excretion of cocaine and metabolites in humans: a kinetic analysis of published data. J Anal Toxicol 1985, 9(6):241-245.
3. Andaluri G., Suri R.P., Kumar K. Occurrence of estrogen hormones in biosolid, animal manure, and mushroom compost. Environ Monit Assess 2012, 184(2):1197-1205.
4. Appello C.A.J., Postma D. Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution 2007, A.A. Balkema Ed., Amsterdam: The Netherlands.
5. Bacaloni A., Cucci F., Guarino C., Nazzari M., Samperi R., Laganà Occurrence of organophosporus flame retardant and plasticizers in three volcanic lakes of central Italy. Environ Sci Technol 2008, 42:1898-1903.
6. Barnes K.K., Kolpin D.W., Furlong E.T., Zaugg S.D., Meyer M.T., Barber L.B. A national reconnaissance of pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States - I) groundwater. Sci Total Environ 2008, 402:192-200.
7. Baronti C., Curini R., D'Ascenzo G., Di Corcia A., Gentili A., Samperi R. Monitoring natural and sythetic estrogens at activated sludge sewage treatment plants and in a receiving river water. Environ Sci Technol 2000, 34(24):5059-5066.
8. Barra Caracciolo A., Giuliano G., Grenni P., Guzzella L., Pozzoni F., Bottoni P., et al. Degradation and leaching of the herbicides metolachlor and diuron: a case study in an area of Northern Italy. Environ Pollut 2005, 134:525-534.
9. Barra Caracciolo A., Grenni P., Falconi F., Caputo M.C., Ancona V., Uricchio V.F. Pharmaceutical waste disposal: assessment of its effects on bacterial communities in soil and groundwater. Chem Ecol 2011, 27(1):43-51.
10. Benvenuto F., Marín J.M., Sancho J.V., Canobbio S., Mezzanotte V., Hernández F. Simultaneous determination of triazines and their main transformation products in surface and urban wastewater by ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography-tandem-mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010, 397:2791-2805.
11. Boleda R., Galceran T., Ventura F. Monitoring of opiates and cannabinoids and their metabolites in wastewater, surface water and finished water in Catalonia, Spain. Water Res 2009, 43:1126-1136.
12. Bono L., Magi E. Fast and selective determination of pesticides in water by automated on-line solid phase extraction liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Lett 2013, 46:1-10.
13. Bottoni P., Keizer J., Funari E. Leaching indices of some major triazine metabolites. Chemosphere 1996, 32(7):1401-1411.
14. Bottoni P., Grenni P., Lucentini L., Barra Caracciolo A. Terbuthylazine and other triazines in Italian water resources. Microchem J 2013, 107:136-142.
15. Bouwer E.J., Zehnder J.B. Bioremediation of organic compounds - putting microbial metabolism to work. Trends Biotechnol 1993, 11:360-367.
16. Burke V., Richter D., Hass U., Dünnbier U., Greskowiak J., Massmann G. Redox-dependent removal of 27 organic trace pollutants: compilation of results from tank aeration experiments. Environ Earth Sci 2013, 10.1007/s12665-013-2762-8.
17. Cabeza Y., Candela L., Ronen D., Teijon G. Monitoring the occurrence of emerging contaminants in treated wastewater and groundwater between 2008 and 2010. The Baix Llobregat (Barcelona, Spain). J Hazard Mater 2012, 239-240:32-39.
18. Calamari D., Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., Bagnati R., Fanelli R. Strategic survey of therapeutic drugs in the rivers Po and Lambro in Northern Italy. Environ Sci Technol 2003, 37:1241-1248.
19. Calza P., Marchisio S., Medana C., Baiocchi C. Fate of antibacterial spiramycin in river waters. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010, 396:1539-1550.
20. Calza P., Medana C., Raso E., Giancotti V., Minero C. N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide transformation in river water. Sci Total Environ 2011, 409:3894-3901.
21. Calza P., Medana C., Padovano E., Giancotti V., Minero C. Fate of selected pharmaceuticals in river waters. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2013, 20:2262-2270.
22. Castiglioni S., Bagnati R., Fanelli R., Pomati F., Calamari D., Zuccato E. Removal of pharmaceuticals in sewage treatment plants in Italy. Environ Sci Technol 2006, 40:357-363.
23. Castiglioni S., Zuccato E., Crisci E., Chiabrando C., Fanelli R., Bagnati R. Identification and measurements of illicit drugs and their metabolites in urban wastewater by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS-MS). Anal Chem 2006, 78:8421-8429.
24. Castiglioni S., Bagnati R., Melis M., Panawennage D., Chiarelli P., Fanelli R., et al. Identification of cocaine and its metabolites in urban wastewater and comparison with the human excretion profile in urine. Water Res 2011, 45:5141-5150.
25. Center for Promotion of Imports from Developing Countries (CBI) Pharmaceutical products: the EU market for synthetic generic medicines Available from, [Accessed on July 2013]. http://www.cbi.eu/system/files/marketintel/200920-20synthetic20generic20medicines1.pdf.
26. Complex molecular database for environmental protection Available from, [Accessed on January 2014]. http://eprot.eu/physical_properties.
27. Curini R., Gentili A., Marchese S., Perret D., Arone L., Monteleone A. Monitoring of pesticides in surface water: off-line SPE followed by HPLC with UV detection and confirmatory analysis by mass spectrometry. Chromatographia 2001, 53:244-250.
28. Daughton C.G. Non-regulated water contaminants: emerging research. Environ Impact Assess 2004, 24:711-732.
29. Daughton C.G., Ternes T.A. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle changes?. Environ Health Perspect 1999, 107(6):907-938.
30. Davì M.L., Gnudi F. Phenolic compounds in surface water. Technical note. Water Res 1999, 33(14):3213-3219.
31. European Commission Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 22nd of October 2000 establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. Off J Eur Union L 2000, 327:1. [22/12/2000].
32. European Commission Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the council of 12th of December 2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration. Off J Eur Union L 2006, 372:19. [27/12/2006].
33. European Commission Directive 2008/105/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16th of December 2008 on environmental quality standards in the field of water policy, amending and subsequently repealing Council Directive 82/280/EEC, 83/513/EEC, 84/156/EEC, 84/491/EEC, 86/280/EEC and amending Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. Official Journal of the European Union L 2008, 348/84. [24/12/2008].
34. European Commission Statistical Office-Eurostat Agri-environmental indicator-consumption of pesticides Available from, [Accessed on September 2013]. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Agri-environmental_indicator_-_consumption_of_pesticides.
35. European Monitoring Centre of Drugs and Drug Abuse (EMCDA) Italy-drug-related information data Available from, [Accessed on September 2013]. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/countries/italy.
36. Fait G., Balderacchi M., Ferrari F., Ungaro F., Capri E., Trevisan M. A field study of the impact of different irrigation practices on herbicide leaching. Eur J Agron 2010, 32:280-287.
37. Fao (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Fao specification and evaluations for plant protection products - procymidone Available from, [Accessed on January 2014]. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/documents/Pests_Pesticides/Specs/procymid.pdf.
38. Fava L., Orrù M.A., Scardala S., Alonzo E., Fardella M., Strumia C., et al. Pesticides and their metabolites in selected Italian groundwater and surface water used for drinking. Ann Ist Super Sanita 2010, 46(3):309-316.
39. Ferrari F., Gallipoli A., Balderacchi M., Ulaszewska M.M., Capri E., Trevisan M. Exposure of the main Italian river basin to pharmaceuticals. J Toxicol 2011, 2011:1-11.
40. Franzmann P.D., Zappia L.R., Tilbury A.L., Patterson B.M., Davis G.B., Mandelbaum R.T. Bioaugmentation of atrazine and fenamiphos impacted groundwater: laboratory evaluation. Biorem J 2000, 4(3):237-248.
41. Gargini A., Pasini M. Completamento dell'investigazione della contaminazione da cloruro di vinile nell'area di Pontelagoscuro (FE). Technical Report 2007, [Available from:http://servizi.comune.fe.it/attach/ambiente/docs/1_report_pandora_completamento_luglio%202007.pdf. Accessed on September 2013].
42. Gargini A., Pasini M., Biavati F., Maccanti I., Messina A., Piccinini L. Survey conducted as part of the agreement between the Ferrara city the Research Consortium of Ferrara. Technical Report 2004, [Available from: http://servizi.comune.fe.it/attach/ambiente/docs/1_piano_di_caratterizzazione.pdf. Accessed on January 2014].
43. Garrido T., Fraile J., Niñerola J.M., Figueras M., Ginebrada A., Olivella L. Survey of groundwater pesticides pollution in rural areas of Catalonia (Spain). Int J Environ Anal Chem 2000, 78(1):51-65.
44. Godfrey E., Woessner W.W., Benotti M.J. Pharmaceuticals in on-site sewage effluent and ground water, Western Montana. Ground Water 2007, 45(3):263-271.
45. Grenni P., Patrolecco L., Ademollo N., Tolomei A., Barra Caracciolo A. Degradation of Gemfibrozil and Naproxen in a river water ecosystem. Microchem J 2013, 107:158-164.
46. Griffini O., Bao M.L., Barbieri D., Burrini F., Pantani F. Occurrence of pesticides in the Arno River and in potable water - a survey of the period 1992-1995. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1997, 59:202-209.
47. Gruber A., Donaldson D., Kiely T., Wu L. Pesticides industry sales and usage 2006-2007 market estimates 2011, US. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington (DC), [Available from: http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/pestsales/07pestsales/market_estimates2007.pdf. Accesses on September 2013].
48. Gustafson D.I. Pesticides in drinking water 1993, van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
49. Guzzella L., Pozzoni F., Giuliano G. Herbicide contamination of surficial water in Northern Italy. Environ Pollut 2006, 142:344-353.
50. Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) US National Library of Medicine, TOXNET Available from, HSDB. Accessed on January 2013. http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?
51. Heberer T., Massmann G., Fanck B., Taute T., Dünnbier U. Behaviour and redox sensitivity of antimicrobial residues during bank filtration. Chemosphere 2008, 73:451-460.
52. Hu L.M., Zhang G., Zheng B.H., Qin Y.W., Lin T., Guo Z.G. Occurrence and distribution of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in surface sediments of the Bohai Sea, China. Chemosphere 2009, 77(5):663-672.
53. Johnson A.C., White C., Bhardwaj C.L. Potential for isoproturon, atrazine and mecocrop to be degraded within a chalk aquifer system. J Contam Hydrol 2000, 44:1-18.
54. Jurado A., Vàzquez-Suñé E., Carrera J., López de Alda M., Pujades E., Barceló D. Emerging contaminants in groundwater in Spain: a review of sources, recent occurrence and fate in a European context. Sci Total Environ 2012, 440:82-94.
55. Kasprzyk Hordern B., Dinsdale R.M., Guwy A.J. The occurrence of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs in surface water in South Wales, UK. Water Res 2008, 42:3498-3518.
56. Köck-Schulmeyer M., Ginebreda A., López de Alda M., Barceló D. Fate and risks of polar pesticides in groundwater samples of Catalonia. The handbook of environmental chemistry 2012, 12/2012:375-394. 10.1007/698_2011_132.
57. Laganá A., Bacaloni A., De Leva I., Faberi A., Fago G., Marino A. Analytical methodologies for determining the occurrence of endocrine disrupting chemicals in sewage plants and natural waters. Anal Chim Acta 2004, 501:79-88.
58. Laini A., Bartoli M., Lamastra L., Capri E., Balderachi M., Trevisan M. Herbicide contamination and dispersion pattern in lowland springs. Sci Total Environ 2012, 438:312-318.
59. Lapworth D.J., Baran N., Stuart M.E., Ward R.S. Emerging contaminants in groundwater: a review of sources, fate and occurrence. Environ Pollut 2012, 163:287-303.
60. Löffler S., Römbke J., Meller M., Ternes T.A. Environmental fate of pharmaceuticals in water/sediment systems. Environ Sci Technol 2005, 39:5209-5218.
61. Loos R., Wollgast J., Huber T., Hanke G. Polar herbicides, pharmaceutical products, perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and nonylphenol and its carboxylates and ethoxylates in surface and tap waters around Lake Maggiore in Northern Italy. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007, 387:1469-1478.
62. Loos R., Locoro G., Huber T., Wollgast J., Christoph E.H., de Jager A., et al. Analysis of perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and other perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in the River Po watershed in N-Italy. Chemosphere 2008, 71:306-313.
63. Loos R., Gawlik B.M., Locoro G., Rimaviciute E., Contini S., Bidoglio G. EU-wide survey of polar organic persistent pollutants in European river waters. Environ Pollut 2009, 157:561-568.
64. Loos R., Locoro G., Comero S., Contini S., Schwesig D., Werres F., et al. Pan-European survey on the occurrence of selected polar organic persistent pollutants in ground water. Water Res 2010, 44:4115-4126.
65. Magi E., Di Carro M., Liscio C. Passive sampling and stir bar sorptive extraction for the determination of endrocrine-disrupting compounds in water by GC-MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010, 397:1335-1345.
66. Marchese S., Perret D., Gentili A., Curini R., Pastori F. Determination of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in surface water and wastewater by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Chromatographia 2003, 58:263-269.
67. Mari F., Politi L., Biggeri A., Accetta G., Trignano C., Di Padua M., et al. Cocaine and heroin in waste water plants: a 1-year study in the city of Florence, Italy. Forensic Sci Int 2009, 189:88-92.
68. Marlund A. Levels and Sources of Organophosphorus Flame Retardants and Plasticizers in Indoor and Outdoor Environments 2005, PhD dissertation presented at, Umeå universitet, Sweden.
69. Martínez-Hernández M.V., Meffe R., Herrera S., Arranz E., De Bustamante I. Sorption/desorption of non-hydrophobic and ionisable pharmaceuticals and personal care products from reclaimed water onto/from a natural sediment. Sci Total Environ 2014, 472:273-281. 2013.
70. Massmann G., Dünnbier U., Heberer T., Taute T. Behaviour and redox sensitivity of pharmaceuticals residues during bank filtration - investigation of phenanzone-type residues. Chemosphere 2008, 71(8):1476-1485.
71. Meffe R., Massmann G., Kohfahl C., Taute T., Richter D., Dünnbier U., et al. Investigating the redox sensitivity of para-toluenesulfonamide (p-TSA) in groundwater. Environ Earth Sci 2012, 65(3):861-870.
72. Meffe R., Kohfahl C., Hamann E., Greskowiak J., Massmann G., Dünnbier U., et al. Fate of para-toluenesulfonamide (p-TSA) in groundwater under anoxic conditions: modelling results from a field site in Berlin (Germany). Environ Sci Pollut Res 2013, 10.1007/s11356-013-1902-8.
73. Miksicek R.J. Commonly occurring plants flavonoids have estrogenic activity. Mol Pharmacol 1993, 44(1):37-43.
74. Moldovan Z. Occurrences of pharmaceutical and personal care products as micropollutants in rivers from Romania. Chemosphere 2006, 64:1808-1817.
75. Müller L., Fattore E., Benefati E. Determination of aromatic amines by solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in water samples. J Chromatogr A 1997, 791:221-230.
76. Murray K.E., Thomas S.M., Bodour A.A. Prioritizing research for trace pollutants and emerging contaminants in the freshwater environment. Environ Pollut 2010, 158:3462-3471.
77. National Institute for Protection and Environmental Research (ISPRA) National Report on Pesticides in waters 2013, Data 2009-2010, [Available from: http://www.isprambiente.gov.it/files/pubblicazioni/rapporti/rap175.2013.pdf. Accessed on June 2013].
78. OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) Water and climate changes adaptation: policies to navigate uncharted waters 2013, 10.1787/9789264200449-en.
79. Osenbrück K., Gläser H.R., Knöller K., Weise S.M., Möder M., Wennrich R., et al. Sources and transport of selected organic micropollutants in urban groundwater underlying the city of Halle (Saale), Germany. Water Res 2007, 41:3259-3270.
80. Otto S., Altissimo L., Zanin G. Terbuthylazine contamination of the aquifer north of Vicenza (North-East Italy). Environ Sci Pollut Res 2007, 14(2):109-113.
81. Pacioni E., Petitta M., Mariño M.A. Simulation by IPTM-CS model of pesticides found in surface water and groundwater of the Fucino Plain, Italy. IAHS red book 2007, 34:188-196. B.W. Web, D. De Boer (Eds.).
82. Pacioni E., Petitta M., Burri E., Fanelli M., Mazzeo P., Ruggieri F. Influence of surface/groundwater interaction on pollution by pesticides in farmlands of the Fucino Plain, Central Italy. Environ Earth Sci 2010, 61:201-216.
83. Pal R., Megharaj M., Kirkbride K.P., Nidu R. Illicit drugs in the environment - a review. Sci Total Environ 2013, 463-464:1079-1092.
84. Pan B., Ning P., Xing B. Part V - sorption of pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2009, 16:106-116.
85. Pasti L., Nava E., Morelli M., Bignami S., Dondi F. GC/MS analysis of pesticides in the Ferrara area (Italy) surface water: a chemiometric study. Ann Chim 2007, 97:359-372.
86. Patisaul H.B., Jefferson W. The prons and cons of phytoestrogens. Front Neuroendocrinol 2010, 31(4):400-419.
87. Patrolecco L., Capri S., De Angelis S., Pagnotta R., Polesello S., Valsecchi S. Partition of nonylphenol and related compounds among different aquatic compartments in Tiber River (central Italy). Water Air Soil Pollut 2006, 172:151-166.
88. Patrolecco L., Ademollo N., Grenni P., Tolomei A., Barra Caracciolo A., Capri S. Simultaneous determination of human pharmaceuticals in water samples by solid phase extraction and HPLC with UV-fluorescence detection. Microchem J 2013, 107:165-171.
89. Pecoraino G., Scalici L., Avellone G., Ceraulo L., Favara R., Gagliano Candela E., et al. Distribution of volatile organic compounds in Sicilian groundwaters analysed by head space-solid phase micro exctraction coupled with gas chromatography mass spectrometry (SPME/GC/MS). Water Res 2008, 42:3563-3577.
90. Peng X., Yu Y., Tang C., Tan J., Huang Q., Wang Z. Occurrence of steroid estrogens, endocrine-disrupting phenols, and acid pharmaceutical residues in urban riverine water of the Pearl River Delta, South China. Sci Total Environ 2008, 397:158-166.
91. Perret D., Gentili A., Marchese S., Greco A., Curini R. Sulfonamide residues in Italian surface and drinking waters: a small scale reconnaissance. Chromatographia 2006, 63:225-232.
92. Piancone G., Porta G., Facchino F., Valenti M., Marola A. Inquinamento delle acque sotterranee nei comuni di Biella e Gaglianico. Technical Report of Arpa Piedmont 2011, [http://www.arpa.piemonte.it/pubblicazioni-2/pubblicazioni-anno-2012/inquinamento-delle-acque-sotterranee-nei-comuni-di-biella-e-gaglianico. Accessed on September 2013].
93. Policy Drug Department of the Italian Parliament Annual report to the Parlamient about illicit drug consumption and drug addiction in Italy, Rome July 2012 (in Italian) Available from:, Accessed in November 2012. http://www.politicheantidroga.it/media/569861/file%20cumulativo_light.pdf.
94. Readman J.W., Albanis T.A., Barceló D., Galassi S., Tronczynski J., Gabrielides G.P. Fungicide contamination of Mediterrean estuarine waters: results from a MED POL pilot survey. Mar Pollut Bull 1997, 34(4):259-263.
95. Reineke A.K., Preiss A., Elend M., Hollender J. Detection of methylquinoline transformation products in microcosm experiments and in tar oil contaminated groundwater using LC-MNR. Chemosphere 2008, 70:2118-2126.
96. Reinstorf F., Leschik S., Musolff A., Osenbrück K., Strauch G., Möder M., et al. Quantification of large-scale urban mass fluxes of xenobiotics and of the river-groundwater interaction in the city of Halle, Germany. Phys Chem Earth 2009, 34:574-579.
97. Richardson S.D., Ternes T.A. Water analysis: emerging contaminants and current issues. Anal Chem 2011, 83:4614-4648.
98. Sagratini G., Ametisti M., Canella M., Cristalli G., Francoletti E., Giardinà D., et al. Well water in Central Italy: analysis of herbicides residues as potential pollutants of untreated crops. Fresenius Environ Bull 2007, 16(8):973-979.
99. Sbrilli G., Bimbi B., Cioni F., Pagliai L., Luchi F., Lanciotti E. Surface and ground waters characterization in Tuscany (Italy) by using algal bioassay ans pesticide determinations: comparative evaluation of the results and hazard assessment of the pesticides impact on primary productivity. Chemosphere 2005, 58:571-578.
100. Schaffer M., Boxberger N., Börnick H., Licha T., Worch E. Sorption influenced transport of ionizable pharmaceuticals onto a natural sandy aquifer sediment at different pH. Chemosphere 2012, 87:513-520.
101. Schwab B.W., Hayes E.P., Fiori J.M., Mastrocco F.J., Roden N.M., Cragin D., et al. Human pharmaceuticals in US surface waters: a human health risk assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2005, 42:296-312.
102. Sicilian Region Presidency Management plan of the Sicilian hydrographic district. Environmental report Available from, [Accessed on January 2012]. http://pti.regione.sicilia.it/portal/page/portal/PIR_PORTALE/PIR_LaStrutturaRegionale/PIR_AssEnergia/PIR_DipEnergia/PIR_PianoEnergeticoAmbientaledellaRegioneSicilianaPEARS/Rapporto%20Ambientale%20%20PEAR.pdf.
103. Slack R.J., Gronow J., Voulvoulis N. Household hazardous waste in municipal landfills: contaminants in leachate. Sci Total Environ 2005, 337:119-137.
104. Strauch G., Moder M., Wennrich R., Osenbruck K., Glaser H.R., Schladitz T., et al. Indicators for assessing anthropogenic impact on urban surface and groundwater. J Soils Sediments 2008, 8:23-33.
105. Stuart M., Lapworth D., Crane E., Hart A. Review of risk of from potential emerging contaminants in UK groundwater. Sci Total Environ 2012, 416:1-21.
106. Swartz C.H., Reddy S., Benotti M.J., Yin H., Barber L.B., Brownawell B.J., et al. Steroid estrogens, nonylphenol ethoxylate metabolites, and other wastewater contaminants in groundwater affected by a residential septic system on Cape Cod, MA. Environ Sci Technol 2006, 40:4894-4902.
107. Teijon G., Candela L., Tamoh K., Molina-Díaz A., Fernández-Alba A.R. Occurrence of emerging contaminants, priority substances (2008/105/CE), and heavy metals in treated wastewater and groundwater at Depurbaix facility (Barcelona, Spain). Sci Total Environ 2010, 408:3584-3595.
108. Tuxen N., Reitzel L.A., Albrechtsen H.J., Bjerg P.L. Oxygen- enhanced biodegradation of phenoxy acids in ground water at contaminated site. Ground Water 2006, 44:256-265.
109. Valcárcel Y., Gonzalez-Alonso S., Rodriguez-Gil J.L., Gil A., Catalá M. Detection of pharmaceutically active compounds in the rivers and tap water of the Madrid Region (Spain) and potential ecotoxicological risk. Chemosphere 2011, 84(10):1336-1348.
110. Verlicchi P., Al Aukidy M., Zambello E. Occurrence of pharmaceuticals compounds in urban wastewater: removal, mass load and environmental risk after a secondary treatment - a review. Sci Total Environ 2012, 429:123-155.
111. Viganò L., Mandich A., Benfenati E., Bertolotti R., Bottero S., Porazzi E., et al. Investigating the estrogenic risk along the River Po and its intermediate section. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 2006, 51:641-651.
112. Vitali M., Ensabella F., Stella D., Guidotti M. Nonylphenols in freshwaters of the hydrologic system of an Italian district: association with human activities and evaluation of human exposure. Chemosphere 2004, 57:1637-1647.
113. Vogue P.A., Kerle E.A., Jenkins J.J. Osu extension pesticide properties database 1994, National Pesticide Information Center, [Available from: http://npic.orst.edu/ingred/ppdmove.htm. Accessed on January 2014].
114. Williams M., Ong P.L., Williams D.B., Kookana R.S. Estimating the sorption of pharmaceuticals based on their pharmacological distribution. Environ Toxicol Chem 2009, 28:2572-2579.
115. Wise A., O'Brien K., Woodruff T. Are oral contraceptives a significant contributor to the estrogenicity of drinking water?. Environ Sci Technol 2011, 45(1):51-60.
116. Zuccato E., Calamari D., Natangelo M., Fanelli R. Presence of therapeutic drugs in the environment. Research Letters. Lancet 2000, 305:1789-1790.
117. Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., Fanelli R. Identification of the pharmaceuticals for human use contaminating Italian aquatic environment. J Hazard Mater 2005, 122:205-209.
118. Zuccato E., Chiabrando C., Castiglioni S., Calamari D., Bagnati R., Schiarea S., et al. Cocaine in surface waters: a new evidence-based tool to monitor community drug abuse. Environ Health 2005, 4(14). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1190203/].
119. Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., Fanelli R., Reitano G., Bagnati R., Chiabrando C., et al. Pharmaceuticals in the environment in Italy: causes, occurrence, effects and control. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2006, 13(1):15-21.
120. Zuccato E., Chiabrando C., Castiglioni S., Bagnati R., Fanelli R. Estimating community drug abuse by wastewater analysis. Environ Health Perspect 2008, 116:1027-1032.
121. Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., Bagnati R., Chiabrando C., Grassi P., Fanelli R. Illicit drugs, a novel group of environmental contaminants. Water Res 2008, 42:961-968.
122. Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., Bagnati R., Melis M., Fanelli R. Source, occurrence and fate of antibiotics in the Italian aquatic environment. J Hazard Mater 2010, 179:1042-1048.
123. Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., Tettamanti M., Olandese R., Bagnati R., Melis M., et al. Changes illicit drug consumption patterns in 2009 detected by wastewater analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011, 118:464-469.