Lost souls: The philosophic origins of a cultural dilemma

Lost Souls: The Philosophic Origins of a Cultural Dilemma

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-210

  Weissman, David ^a  

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References (353)

1. Reported by the BBC, August 7, 1998.
2. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. Walter Kaufmann p. 27.
3. Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964)
4. René Descartes, Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, ed. David Weissman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 383.
5. Plato, The Republic, trans. Francis MacDonald Cornford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1945), pp. 227-230, 514a-516e.
6. Aristotle, Metaphysics, in Basic Works, ed. Richard McKeon (New inf: Random House, 1941), pp. 784-786, 1028b33-1029b13.
7. See Plato, Republic, pp. 221-223, for the diagram from which this one derives.
8. Plotinus, Enneads, trans. Stephen MacKenna, 2nd ed. rev. C. S. Page (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), p. 434.
9. Plato, Timaeus, in Collected Dialogues, ed. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (New inf: Pantheon Books, 1964), p. 1176, 49a.
10. Plotinus, Enneads, p. 22.
11. Plato, Parmenides, in Collected Dialogues, p. 925, 131a-d.
12. Plotinus, Enneads, p. 262.
13. René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, in Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, ed. David Weissman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), pp. 69-70.
14. Plotinus, Enneads, p. 432.
15. Stephen Menn, Descartes and Augustine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 130-206.
16. Lucas Siorvanes, Proclus (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), pp. 247-256.
17. Augustine, Confessions, in Augustine, Confessions and Enchiridion, trans. Albert C. Outler (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1955), p. 151.
18. René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, in Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, ed. David Weissman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 59.
19. Plato, Letter VII, in Collected Dialogues, ed. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (New inf: Pantheon Books, 1964), pp. 1589-1591, 342b-344d;
20. David Weissman, Intuition and Ideality (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press, 1987), pp. 17-52.
21. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, pp. 49-51.
22. René Descartes, Treatise on Man and The Passions of the Soul, in Philosophical Writings, vols. 1 and 2, trans. John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, and Dugald Murdoch, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), vol. 1, pp. 99-108, 314-324.
23. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, pp. 67-69.
24. Plato, Timaeus, in Collected Dialogues, pp. 1176-1178, 49a-51b.
25. Plato, Republic, pp. 2 19-220, 508a-d.
26. Descartes, Passions of the Soul, in Philosophical Writings, vol. I, p. 349.
27. See also John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett Publishing Co., 1969), p. 7: "Pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends."
28. This was Descartes' principle before it was Berkeley's. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 150;
29. George Berkeley, The Principles of Human Knowledge, Berkeley's Philosophical Writings (New inf: Collier Books, 1965), p. 62.
30. Descartes' Dedication to the Meditations joins two issues: God and the soul, and his "Method for the resolution of difficulties of every kind in the Sciences" (Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 50). It might seem that these concerns are mutually extraneous, one as it flatters theological prejudices, the other as it concern a procedure for discovering truths. Their relation is, nevertheless, critical for the richer theory. It supposes that truth claims- and the criteria for meaning and truth-inevitably make assumptions about the knower, the known, and their relation, as when God guarantees the truth of clear and distinct ideas.
31. The leaner theory, approximated in Descartes' Rules for the Direction of the Mind, argues to the contrary that the criteria for meaning and truth are a priori standards applied in every domain where knowledge claims are made, without reliance on a divine guarantor. This is a critical difference in the evolution of philosophic thinking about knowledge: is knowledge a function of the character and relation of knower and known. Or is it the a priori product of thinking that satisfies mind's own standards?
32. See David Weissman, Truth's Debt to Value (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), p. 127.
33. Stephen Menn, Descartes and Augustine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 262.
34. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 64.
35. Also see Proclus, The Elements of Theology, trans. E. R. Dodds (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), 2nd ed., p. 165:
36. "Every soul is self-animated (or has life in its own right).
37. René Descartes, Philosophical Writings, vol. 3, trans. John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dugald Murdoch, and Anthony Kenny (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 235.
38. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, pp. 96-108.
39. Nicholas Malebranche, Dialogues on Metaphysics and on Religion, trans. Morris Ginsberg (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1923), pp. 195-199.
40. David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge and P. H. Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), p. 75.
41. G. W. Leibniz, Philosophical Essays, trans. Roger Ariew and Daniel Garber (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 1989), pp. 33, 179, 184-185, n. 239.
42. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (New inf: St. Martin's Press, 1965), pp. 67-74.
43. Weissman, Intuition and Ideality, pp. 29-42.
44. Descartes, Philosophical Writings, vol. 2, p. 139. Descartes thanked another correspondent who called his attention to this similarity:
45. (Descartes, Philosophical Writings, vol. 3, p. 159)
46. See the remark quoted previously from the Passions of the Soul, where the benefit or harm done us is the criterion for evaluating other things. Unequivocally presupposed is the idea that I am the self-valuing good for which their value is instrumental only. Did he get the idea from Augustine? We don't know.
47. Menn, Descartes and Augustine, pp. 130-206.
48. Proclus, The Elements of Theology. trans. E. R. Dodds, 2nd ed., (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), p. 11;
49. Siorvanes, Proclus, pp. 82-84.
50. For Descartes see Meditations on First Philosophy, pp. 64, 90-91.
51. Proclus, Elements of Theology, p. 151;
52. Siorvanes, Proclus, pp. 168-169.
53. For Descartes see Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 66.
54. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 155;
55. Proclus, Elements of Theology, p. 147.
56. For Descartes see Meditations on First Philosophy, pp. 64-67.
57. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 154;
58. Proclus, Elements of Theology, p. 147.
59. For Descartes see Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 66.
60. Proclus, Elements of Theology, p. 155.
61. For Descartes see Meditations on First Philosophy, pp. 90-91.
62. Proclus, Elements of Theology, pp. 71-73;
63. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 77.
64. For Descartes see Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 75.
65. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 247.
66. For Descartes see Principles of Philosophy, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, pp. 227-228.
67. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 218.
68. For Descartes see The World, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 86.
69. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 298.
70. For Descartes see Principles of Philosophy, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 247.
71. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 226.
72. For Descartes see Principles of Philosophy, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 247.
73. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 208.
74. For Descartes see The World, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, pp. 89-90.
75. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 208.
76. For Descartes see Principles of Philosophy, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, pp. 245-246.
77. Siorvanes, Proclus, pp. 271-272.
78. For Descartes see The World and Principles of Philosophy, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, pp. 91, 243.
79. Siorvanes, Proclus, p. 293.
80. For Descartes see Optics, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 152.
81. Proclus, Elements of Theology, p. xxvii, n. 3.
82. Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche, vols. 3 and 4, ed. David Farrell Krell (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1991), vol. 3, p. 19.
83. René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, in Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, ed. David Weissman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 64.
84. René Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, in Philosophical Writings, vols. 1 and 2, trans. John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, and Dugald Murdoch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), vol. 1, p. 20.
85. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, trans. D. F. Pears and B. F. McGuiness (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963), pp. 15-19, pparas. 2.15-2.225.
86. David Weissman, Intuition and Ideality (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press, 1987), pp. 29-32.
87. Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 33.
88. Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 21.
89. Descartes, Principles of Philosophy, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, pp. 289-291.
90. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 60.
91. "But what am I? A thing which thinks." Being a thing, a substance, is the mark of unity.
92. Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 66.
93. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 65.
94. Parmenides, Parmenides of Elea, trans. David Gallop (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984), p. 57.
95. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 64.
96. Descartes, Passions of the Soul, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 349.
97. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 91.
98. Proclus, The Elements of Theology, trans. E. R. Dodds (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), p. xxxiii.
99. Etienne Gilson, The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy, trans. A. H. C. Downes [Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991], pp. 244-245.
100. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (New inf: Dover, 1959), vol. 2, p. 253.
101. George Berkeley, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonus, in Berkeley's Philosophical Writings (New inf: Collier Books, 1965), p. 170.
102. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 66.
103. Albert Einstein, Relativity (London: Routledge, 1960), pp. 155-156.
104. Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 14.
105. René Descartes, Philosophical Writings, vol. 3, trans. John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dugald Murdoch, and Anthony Kenny (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 324.
106. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 65.
107. Nicholas Malebranche, Dialogues on Metaphysics and on Religion, trans. Morris Ginsberg (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1923), pp. 202-224;
108. G. W. Leibniz, Philosophical Essays, trans. Roger Ariew and Daniel Garber (Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett Publishing Co, 1989) pp. 35-41;
109. Berkeley, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonus, in Berkeley's Philosophical Writings pp. 214-2 19.
110. Descartes, Philosophical Writings, vol. 2, pp. 69-71.
111. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 85.
112. Kant described the transcendental ego's self-sufficiency as "spontaneity", thereby implying that understanding is exempt from the constraint of, and need for other things (Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith [New inf: St. Martin's Press, 1965], p. 93).
113. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 66.
114. Berkeley, The Principles of Human Knowledge, in Berkeley's Philosophical Writings, p. 62.
115. Leibniz, Philosophical Essays, p. 216.
116. Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, vol. 1, pp. 121-125.
117. Berkeley, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonus, pp. 193-194.
118. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, p. 179.
119. Johann G. Fichte, The Science of Knowledge, trans. Peter Heath and John Lachs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 97.
120. G. W. F. Hegel, Phenomenology of Mind, trans. J. B. Baillie, (New inf: Harper, 1967).
121. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 81, l32-133.
122. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 69.
123. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 257-275.
124. Rudolf Carnap, The Logical Structure of the World, trans. Rolf A. George (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), pp. 11-12;
125. and W. V. O. Quine, Word and Object (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1960), p. 271.
126. Alfred Tarski, "The Semantic Conception of Truth", in Semantics and the Philosophy of Language, ed. Leonard Linsky (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1952), pp. 21-23.
127. See the essays in J. L. Austin, Philosophical Papers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970).
128. Tarski, "Semantic Conception of Truth", pp. 21-23.
129. Carnap, Logical Structure of the World, pp. 27-28.
130. Rudolf Carnap, "Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology", in Semantics and the Philosophy of Language, pp. 219-221.
131. Plato, Sophist, in Collected Dialogues, ed. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (New inf: Pantheon Books, 1964) pp. 957-1017, 216a1-268d5;
132. David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge and P. H. Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), pp. 1-17.
133. Leibniz, Philosophical Essays, p. 219.
134. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 105-106, 180-187.
135. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 69.
136. Leibniz, Philosophical Essays, p. 325.
137. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, p. 135.
138. Hegel, Phenomenology of Mind, pp. 462-610.
139. Carnap, Logical Structure of the World, pp. 175-246.
140. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1953), p. 11, ppara. 23.
141. J. L. Austin, How To Do Things With Words (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), pp. 4-7.
142. Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell, Principia Mathematica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964);
143. David Hilbert, Foundations of Geometry, trans. Leo Unger (La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1988);
144. Arend Heyting, Intuitionism, an Introduction (Amsterdam: North Holland, 1956).
145. Descartes, Philosophical Writings, vol. 3, p. 235.
146. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 86.
147. Benedict Spinoza, Ethics, trans. by R. H. M. Elwes (New inf: Dover, 1955), pp. 202-205.
148. Arthur Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, trans. E. F. J. Payne (New inf: Dover, 1966), vol. 1, p. 58;
149. Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id, trans. Joan Riviere (New inf: W. W. Norton and Co., 1989, pp. 44-47.
150. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. Walter Kaufmann, (New inf: Vintage Books, 1989), p. 48.
151. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New inf: Random House, 1968), pp. 270-271.
152. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, trans. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis: Liberal Arts Press, 1956), pp. 52-59.
153. Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche, vols. 3 and 4, ed. David Farrell Krell (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1991), vol. 3, pp. 242, 243, and 250.
154. See Tom Rockmore, On Heidegger's Nazism and Philosophy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).
155. Fichte, Science of Knowledge, pp. 232, 259.
156. Descartes, The Passions of the Soul, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 350.
157. Edmund Husserl, Cartesian Meditations, trans. Dorion Cairns (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1960), p. 84.
158. David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge and P. H. Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), p. 172.
159. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (New inf: St. Martin's Press, 1965), pp. 65-91.
160. René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, in Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, ed. David Weissman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 69;
161. G. W. Leibniz, Philosophical Essays, trans. Roger Ariew and Daniel Garber (Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett Publishing Co., 1989), pp. 217-218.
162. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 104-119.
163. J. G. Fichte, Science of Knowledge, trans. Peter Heath and John Lachs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 207-208, 275-276;
164. F. W. J. Schelling, trans. Peter Heath, System of Transcendental Idealism (1800) (Charlottesville, Va.: University Press of Virginia, 1978), pp. 13-14, 72, 76;
165. and G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Mind, trans. J. B. Baillie (New inf: Harper and Row, 1967) p. 792.
166. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgment, trans. W. S. Pluhar (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 1987), pp. 16-18.
167. Leibniz, Philosophical Essays, p. 214;
168. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, p. 285.
169. Plato, Theaetetus, in Collected Dialogues, ed., Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (New inf: Pantheon Books, 1963), pp. 857, 152d-e; 887, 182d.
170. Kant, Critique of Judgment, p. 16, n. 18.
171. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 297-307.
172. Leibniz, Philosophical Essays, p. 219.
173. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, p. 93.
174. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, trans. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis, Ind.: Liberal Arts Press, 1956), pp. 52-59.
175. Hume, Treatise of Human Nature, p. 165.
176. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, p. 147.
177. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, pp. 195-209.
178. A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth, and Logic, 2nd ed. (London: V. Gollancz, 1967).
179. There are also eclectic analysts, many of them having no conscious or consistent historical allegiance. Analysts of all sorts should be distinguished from speculative thinkers who use formal arguments to justify their extra-philosophic beliefs-about God, for example. See Alvin Plantinga, God and Other Minds (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990).
180. William James, "The Will to Believe", in The Writings of William James, ed. John J. McDermott (New inf: Modern Library, 1968), pp. 717-735.
181. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New inf: Vintage Books, 1989), pp. 47-48.
182. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New inf: Random House, 1968), pp. 420-421.
183. Friedrich Nietzsche, On The Genealogy of Morals, trans. Douglas Smith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 15-16.
184. Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche, vols 1 and 2, trans. David Farrell Krell (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1991), vol. 2, p. 203.
185. Nietzsche, Genealogy of Morals, pp. 217-219.
186. Nietzsche, Will to Power, p. 17.
187. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, p. 2.
188. Nietzsche, Genealogy of Morals, pp. 5-6, 8.
189. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, p. 161.
190. Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. James Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (New inf: Harper & Row, 1962), pp. 67-90.
191. Edmund Husserl, Cartesian Meditations, trans. Dorion Cairns (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1960), pp. 9-11.
192. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, p. 169, n.
193. Heidegger, Nietzsche, vol. 3, p. 222.+
194. Heidegger, Nietzsche, vol. 3, p. 138.
195. Aristotle, The Basic Works of Aristotle, ed. Richard McKeon (New inf: Random House, 1941), pp. 564-567, 417b32-418a7;
196. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, vol. 1, (New inf: Dover, 1959), p. 142.
197. Heidegger, Nietzsche, vol. 3, p. 129.
198. Kant, Critique of Judgment, p. 16, n. 18;
199. Fichte, The Science of Knowledge, p. 32;
200. and Schelling, System of Transcendental Idealism (1800), pp. 137, 171-176.
201. Heidegger, Nietzsche, vol. 4, p. 211.
202. Husserl, Cartesian Meditations, pp. 69-72.
203. Rudolf Carnap, The Logical Structure of the World, trans. Rolf A. George (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), p. 288.
204. Rudolf Carnap, Meaning and Necessity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), p. 248.
205. Carnap, Logical Structure of the World, pp. 233-234.
206. Rudolf Carnap, "Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology", in Semantics and the Philosophy of Language, ed. Leonard Linsky (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1952), pp. 209-210.
207. Carnap, Logical Structure of the World, pp. 233-234.
208. W. V. O. Quine, Word and Object, (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1960), p. 272, n. 2.
209. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, p. 137.
210. David Weissman, Intuition and Ideality (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press, 1987), pp. 288-289.
211. W. V. O. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (New inf: Columbia University Press, 1969), p. 26.
212. W. V. O. Quine, The Ways of Paradox (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976), pp. 246-254.
213. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, p. 82.
214. Quine emphasizes his naturalism in W. V. O. Quine, Theories and Things (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), pp. 21-22;
215. and he thanks Gibson for correctly describing his naturalistic views: "Reply to Roger F. Gibson, Jr.", in The Philosophy of W. V. Quine, ed. Lewis E. Hahn and Paul A. Schilpp (Chicago and La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1998), pp. 155-157.
216. Quine's naturalism is, nevertheless, qualified: "Factuality, like gravitation and electric charge, is internal to our theory of nature" (Quine, Theories and Things, p. 23).
217. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, pp. 125-126.
218. Quine, Ways of Paradox, p. 134.
219. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, p. 91.
220. Quine, Word and Object, p. 271.
221. W. V. O. Quine, The Roots of Reference (La Salle, IL: Open Court, 1974), p. 88.
222. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, pp. 81-141.
223. Quine, Word and Object, p. 24.
224. For the rationale, see: W. V. O. Quine, "Existence and Quantification", in Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, pp. 91-113.
225. Quine, Roots of Reference, p. 138.
226. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, pp. 126-127.
227. Charles Sanders Peirce, "The Fixation of Belief", in Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vol. 5, ed. Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss (Cambridge, Mass.; Harvard University Press, 1965), pp. 223-247;
228. David Weissman, Hypothesis and the Spiral of Reflection (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press, 1989), pp. 92-96.
229. Quine, Word and Object, p. 12.
230. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, p. 50.
231. Heidegger, Nietzsche, vol. 4, pp. 97-98.
232. Ernest Nagel, The Structure of Science (New inf: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961), pp. 151-152.
233. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), p. 117.
234. Carnap, "Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology", p. 211.
235. Nietzsche, Will to Power, p. 545.
236. René Descartes, Philosophical Writings, vols. 1 and 2, trans. John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, and Dugald Murdoch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), vol. 2, pp. 122; 183-184;
237. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (New inf: Dover, 1959), vol. 2, p. 193.
238. Descartes, Treatise on Man, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 99.
239. René Descartes, Oeuvres de Descartes, ed. Charles Adam and Paul Tannery, rev. ed., 12 vols. (Paris: Vrin/CNRS, 1964-76), vol. 11, p. 185;
240. see also Descartes, Philosophical Writings, vol. 2, p. 161.
241. David Chalmers, The Conscious Mind (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 150-160.
242. Aristotle, De Anima, in Basic Works, ed. Richard McKeon (New inf: Random House, 1941), p. 555, 412a25.
243. Plato, The Republic, trans. Francis MacDonald Cornford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1945), pp. 2 19-220, 508b.
244. Descartes, Treatise on Man, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 100.
245. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (New inf: St. Martin's Press, 1965), pp. 92-93.
246. Descartes, Philosophical Writings, Vol. 2, pp. 122, 183-184.
247. See, for example, Chalmers's views about "property dualism", the irreducibility of phenomenal to physical properties (Conscious Mind, pp. 264-268).
248. Thomas Nagel, The View from Nowhere (New inf: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 29
249. Sometimes it is argued that consciousness might be an emergent property, in a sense that is still compatible with materialism. In recent work on complex systems and artificial life, it is often held that emergent properties are unpredictable from low-level properties, but that they are physical all the same. Examples are the emergence of self-organization in biological systems, or the emergence of flocking patterns from simple rules in simulated birds.... If all the physical facts about such a system over time are given, then the fact that self-organization is occurring will be straightforwardly derivable. This is just what we would expect as properties such as self-organization and flocking are straightforwardly functional and structural. If consciousness is an emergent property, it is emergent in a much stronger sense. There is a stronger notion of emergence, used by the British emergentists... according to which emergent properties are not even predictable from the entire ensemble of low-level physical facts. It is reasonable to say (as the British emergentists did) that conscious experience is emergent in this sense. But this sort of emergence is best counted as a variety of property dualism. Unlike the more "innocent" examples of emergence given above, the strong variety requires new fundamental laws in order that the emergent properties emerge (Chalmers, Conscious Mind, pp. 129-130).
250. Descartes, Description of the Human Body, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 315.
251. Eric Kandel, Cellular Basis of Behavior (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1976).
252. Aristotle, De Anima, in Basic Works, p. 555, 412a15-21: "It follows that every natural body which has life in it is a substance in the sense of a composite.... Hence the soul must be a substance in the sense of the form of a natural body having life potentially within it."
253. See Daniel Dennett, Consciousness Explained (New inf: Little, Brown, 1991).
254. Peirce anticipated this result when he described four methods for achieving belief-tenacity, authority, intuition, and hypothesis- and the trajectory in which each subsequent method supersedes the one or others before it. See C. S. Peirce, "The Fixation of Belief", in Collected Papers, vols. 5 and 6, ed. Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1935), vol. 5, pp. 233-247.
255. W. V. O. Quine, Word and Object, (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1960), p. 23.
256. David Weissman, Hypothesis and the Spiral of Reflection (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press, 1989), pp. 34-40.
257. Henri Bergson, Creative Evolution, trans. Arthur Mitchell (London: Macmillan and Co., 1919), p. 381;
258. Edmund Husserl, Cartesian Meditations, trans. Dorion Cairns (The Hague: Martinus Nihjoff, 1960), p. 78.
259. David Lewis, Parts of Classes (Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, 1991), pp. 79-81.
260. David Weissman, A Social Ontology (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), pp. 24-88.
261. W. V. O. Quine, "Epistemology Naturalized", in Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (New inf: Columbia University Press, 1969), pp. 69-90. This essay expresses Quine's naturalistic inclinations.
262. (W V. O. Quine, Pursuit of Truth [Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990], p. 19).
263. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), pp. 43-51.
264. Pierre Duhem, The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, trans. Philip P. Wiener (New inf: Atheneum, 1962), pp. 304-306.
265. See Ruth Millikan, Language, Thought, and Other Biological Categories (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1984);
266. and Peter Godfrey-Smith, Complexity and the Function of Mind in Nature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
267. W. V. O. Quine, Word and Object (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1960), pp. 206-211.
268. Aristotle, De Anima, in Basic Works, ed. Richard McKeon (New inf: Random House, 1941), pp. 564-581, 416b32-424b19;
269. Alvin Goldman, "A Causal Theory of Knowing", Journal of Philosophy 64(1967):357-372.
270. René Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, in Philosophical Writings, vols. 1 and 2, ed. John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, and Dugald Murdoch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985) vol, I, p. 21.
271. Gilbert Harman, Explaining Virtue (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), p. 221.
272. John Searle, "End of the Revolution", New York Review of Books 49(3):36.
273. p. 35. Classifying Searle with the dualists seems inappropriate, given his emphatic claim that "consciousness is an ordinary biological phenomenon comparable with growth, digestion, or the secretion of bile" (John Searle, The Mystery of Consciousness [New inf: New York Review of Books, 1997], p. 6). Yet, he qualifies this view:
274. ("End of the Revolution", p. 34).
275. Antonio R. Damasio, Descartes' Error (New inf: Putnam, 1994), pp. 155-158.
276. David Weissman, Truth's Debt to Value (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), pp. 160-162.
277. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (New inf: St. Martin's Press, l965), pp. 106, 191-194.
278. Paul Horwich, Truth (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990, p. 111.
279. Descartes, Rules for the Direction of the Mind, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 13.
280. David Weissman, Intuition and Ideality (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press, 1987), pp. 29-32.
281. Aristotle, Posterior Analytics, in Basic Works, pp. 111-113, 71b8-72b4.
282. Rudolf Carnap, The Logical Structure of the World, trans. Rolf A. George (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), pp. 87-88.
283. Quine, Word and Object, p. 12: "In an obvious way this structure of interconnected sentences is a single connected fabric including all sciences, and indeed everything we ever say about the world; for the logical truths at least, and no doubt many more commonplace sentences too, are germane to all topics and thus provide connections."
284. Godfrey-Smith, Complexity and the Function of Mind in Nature, p. 110.
285. Descartes, Principles of Philosophy, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1 pp. 256-257;
286. and Lou Massa, "Physics and Mathematics", in Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, ed. David Weissman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), pp. 272-274.
287. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe (New inf: Macmillan, 1953), p. 80, para. 199;p. 83, para. 202; pp. 92-94, paras. 258-265.
288. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, p. 314.
289. Quine, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, pp. 30-34.
290. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 67-91.
291. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (New inf: Macmillan, 1956), p. 16.
292. David Weissman, A Social Ontology (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), pp. 57-58.
293. Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, p. 66.
294. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New inf: Basic Books, 1974), p. 33.
295. Weissman, A Social Ontology, p. 69
296. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Michael Oakeshott (Oxford: Blackwell, 1946), pp. 172-189;
297. Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, pp. 23-25.
298. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things (New inf: Vintage Books, 1973).
299. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 54-117;
300. Jurgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1884), pp. 8-42: [T]he knowledge embodied in normatively regulated actions or in expressive manifestations does not refer to the existence of states of affairs but to the validity of norms or to the manifestation of subjective experiences. With these expressions the speaker can refer not to something in the objective world but only to something in a common social world or in his own subjective world. For now I shall have to leave the matter with this provisional suggestion that there are communicative actions characterized by other relations to the world and connected with valididty claims different from truth and effectiveness (Theory of Communicative Action, p. 16).
301. Weissman, A Social Ontology, pp. 59-63.
302. Friedrich Nietzsche, Philosophy and Truth: Selections from Nietzsche's Notebooks of the Early 1870's (Atlantic Heights, N. J.: Humanities Press, 1993), p. 79.
303. John Lachs, In Love with Life (Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press, 1998).
304. This issue provokes Western philosophy from its inception. Plato's allegory of the cave and Hegel's Phenomenology of Mind are two high points.
305. Thomas Nagel, The View from Nowhere, (New inf: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 5;
306. and William Desmond's notion of the between: Being and the Between (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995).
307. George Berkeley, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonus, in Berkeley's Philosophical Writings (New inf: Collier Books, 1965), p. 170.
308. David Finkelstein, Quantum Relativity (Heidelberg: Springer, 1996).
309. For realist doubts see Andrew Whittaker, Einstein, Bohr and the Quantum Dilemma (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996);
310. and F. Selleri, Quantum Paradoxes and Physical Reality (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990).
311. Dennis Overbye, "Peering through the Gates of Time", New York Times 151 (52, 055) Tuesday, March 12, 2002, p. F1.
312. David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge and P. H. Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), p. 82.
313. David Albert, Quantum Mechanics and Experience (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 112-113.
314. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 297-570.
315. Compare the operationalism of Finkelstein, Quantum Relativity, and the realism of Albert, Quantum Mechanics and Experience, pp. 47-60.
316. See Marshall Spector, "Mind, Matter, and Quantum Mechanics", in Patrick Grim, Philosophy of Science and the Occult, 2d ed. (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), pp. 326-349, for a sober view of quantum theory's implications.
317. David Weissman, Truth's Debt to Value (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), pp. 66-100;
318. Friedrich Nietzsche, Genealogy of Morals, trans. Douglas Smith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 113-114.
319. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, trans. D. F. Pears and B. F. McGuinness (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963), p. 115, para. 5.6.
320. Plato, The Republic, trans. Francis MacDonald Cornford (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1945, pp. 9-10, 331e-332c.
321. David Weissman, Eternal Possibilities (Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1977) pp. 115-126;
322. idem, A Social Ontology (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), pp. 27-30.
323. Graham Nerlich, The Shape of Space, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
324. Stephen Gaukroger, "The Nature of Abstract Reasoning: Philosophical Aspects of Descartes' Work in Algebra", in The Cambridge Companion to Descartes, ed. John Cottingham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 91-114.
325. Weissman Eternal Possibilities, pp. 57-58;
326. idem, Truth's Debt to Value, pp. 262-272.
327. John N. Findlay, The Discipline of the Cave (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966);
328. and idem, The Transcendence of the Cave (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1967).
329. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe (Oxford: Blackwell, 1953), pp. 125-127, paras. 416-426.
330. Norman Malcolm, Dreaming (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962)
331. Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, p. 147, para. 6.43.
332. Weissman, Eternal Possibilities, pp. 57-107.
333. Weissman, Truth's Debt to Value, pp. 297-330.
334. Etienne Gilson, The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy, trans. A. H. C. Downes (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), pp. 168-188.
335. David Weissman, Hypothesis and the Spiral of Reflection (Albany, N. Y.: State University of New York Press), pp. 187-197;
336. idem, A Social Ontology, pp. 104-110.
337. Weissman, A Social Ontology, pp. 267-271.
338. Adolf Grünbaum, The Foundations of Psychoanalysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
339. René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, in Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy, ed. David Weissman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 86.
340. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, trans. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis, Ind.: Liberal Arts Press, 1956), p. 45.
341. René Descartes, The Passions of the Soul, in Philosophical Writings, vols. 1 and 2, trans. John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, and Dugald Murdoch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), vol. 1, p. 349.
342. Weissman, A Social Ontology, pp. 229-237.
343. Plato, Republic, p. 142, 443d-e;
344. Aristotle, Politics, in Basic Works, ed. Richard McKeon (New inf: Random House, 1941), pp. 1277-1279, 1323a15-1324a13.
345. Descartes, The Passions of the Soul, in Philosophical Writings, vol. 1, p. 349.
346. David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge and P. H. Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978) p. 415;
347. John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism (Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett Publishing Co., 1969), p. 7;
348. Nietzsche, The Genealogy of Morals, pp. 58-60, 73-74.
349. Mill, Utilitarianism, pp. 8-10.
350. Gilson, Spirit of Medieval Philosophy, pp. 269-270.
351. Weissman, A Social Ontology, pp. 147-148.
352. G. W. F. Hegel, The Philosophy of Right, trans. T. M. Knox (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952), pp. 122-155.
353. Weissman, A Social Ontology, pp. 164-178.