Who's in charge of America's research universities?: A blueprint for reform

Who's in Charge of America's Research Universities?: A Blueprint for Reform

Volumn , Issue , 2003, Pages 1-190

  Tighe, Thomas J ^a  

^a NONE

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References (147)

1. An excellent statement of the defining characteristics of the research university is presented in The Top American Research Universities, a report published in 2001 by TheCenter at the University of Florida at Gainsville, and available through its website at http://thecenter.ufl.edu.
2. "The country's 125 research universities make up only 3 percent of the total number of institutions of higher learning." "Reinventing Undergraduate Education: A Blueprint for America's Research Universities", Report of the Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University, State University of New York, Stony Brook, 1998, Overview, p. 1, http://www.stonybrook.edu/boyerreport.
3. "In 1860 at the dawn of the decade." Colleges of Agriculture at the Land Grant Universities: A Profile, Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press, 1995, pp. 18-19.
4. Undertake a study of how the "information, the techniques, and the research experience developed by (your office) and by the thousands of scientists in the universities and in private industry, should be used in the days of peace ahead." Letter from President Franklin D. Roosevelt to Dr. Vannevar Bush, November 17, 1944
5. in Science, The Endless Frontier, Report to the President on a Program for Postwar Scientific Research, July 1945. Reprinted July 1960, National Science Foundation, Washington, D. C., p. 3.
6. "Basic research creates the fund." Vannevar Bush, p. 19.
7. "The government should accept new responsibilities." p. 8.
8. "continue in peacetime." p. 6.
9. "These institutions provide the environment", p. 6.
10. "For many years the Government", p. 22.
11. "Support of basic research in the public and private colleges, universities, and research institutes must leave the internal control of policy." p. 33.
12. "The bargain struck between the federal government and university science." David H. Guston and Kenneth Keniston, "Introduction: The Social Contract for Science, "
13. in Guston and Keniston (Eds.), The Fragile Contract: University Science and the Federal Government, Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1994, pp. 1-2.
14. "As many as three quarters." Vartan Gregorian quoted in Frank Rich, 'The Unkindest Cut', New York Times, Op-Ed page, May 21, 1995.
15. "Since the end of World War II." "University Research: Touching the Lives of All Americans", Report of the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges, Washington, D. C., 1996, p. 2.
16. We come into the world, then, as intensely curious creatures. A general overview of the perceptual and cognitive competencies of the infant can be found in Marc H. Bornstein and Michael E. Lamb, Development in Infancy, 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 1992.
17. A more specialized review is given in Leslie B. Cohen and Cara H. Cashon, "Infant Perception and Cognition", in R. Lerner, A. Easterbrooks, and J. Mistry (Eds.), Comprehensive Handbook of Psychology, vol. 6, Developmental Psychology, II, Infancy, New York: Wiley, in press.
18. An early demonstration that infants will work for new visual stimuli is found in E. R. Siqueland and C. A. DeLucia, "Visual Reinforcement of Nonnutritive Sucking in Human Infants", Science, 1969, vol. 165, 1144-1146.
19. The relation between early infant attention and learning and later development is described in M. Sigman, S. E. Cohen, and L. Beckwith, "Why Does Infant Attention Predict Adolescent Intelligence?" Infant Behavior and Development, 1997, vol. 20.
20. The developmental course of the early preference for novelty versus extrinsically driven performance is traced by David Zeaman in "The Ubiquity of Novelty-Familiarity (Habituation?) Effects", in T. J. Tighe and R. N. Leaton (Eds.), Habituation: Perspectives from Child Development, Animal Behavior, and Neurophysiology, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1976, pp. 297-320.
21. "progress on a broad front." Science, The Endless Frontier, July 1945. Reprinted July 1960, National Science Foundation, Washington, D. C., p. 12.
22. "What could be more useless." Nathan Myhrvold, "Supporting Science", Science, 1998, vol. 282, 621.
23. "Could you describe the addictive personality?" Daniel E. Koshland, "The Addictive Personality", Science, 1990, vol. 250, 1193.
24. "The more creative the problem solving." David Klar and Herbert A. Simon, "What Have Psychologists (And Others) Discovered about the Process of Scientific Discovery?" Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2001, vol. 10, 79.
25. University boards are essentially business boards. Information on the composition and other characteristics of university governing boards is derived from surveys of nearly eleven hundred governing boards of independent and public colleges and universities conducted by the Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges (the AGB) and reported in two papers by Holly Madsen published in 1998 by the AGB, Washington, D. C.
26. These reports are the "Composition of Governing Boards of Independent Colleges and Universities", Occasional Paper no. 36, 1997
27. and the "Composition of Governing Boards of Public Colleges and Universities", Occasional Paper no. 37, 1997.
28. A recent survey... on the president's primary use of time. "College Presidents Say Planning, Fundraising, Budgeting, and Personnel Issues Occupy Much of Their Time", in Higher Education and National Affairs, American Council on Education, October 9, 2000, vol. 49, no. 18. p. 2.
29. Several higher education analysts. The linkage of university board activism to the business world outlined here draws upon papers by Marvin Lazerson, "Who Owns Higher Education? The Changing Face of Governance", Change, March-April 1997, vol. 29, no. 2. p. 10
30. and Richard Chait, "The New Activism of Corporate Boards and the Implications for Campus Governance", Association of Governing Boards, Occasional Paper no. 26, 1995.
31. The 80s and 90s saw directive power shift sharply from the executive level to the board level. The Enron scandal would suggest that the shift has hardly been sufficient to offset the manager-friendly bias of business boards.
32. The Board of Regents of the University of California acts against. Joan Wallach Scott, "Defending the Tradition of Shared Governance", Chronicle of Higher Education, August 9, 1996.
33. In the process, the board threatens the job of the system's president. Patrick Healy, "Critics Say New Trustees Are Politicizing Presidential Searches, ".
34. Conflict with their governing boards. Lazerson, "Who Owns Higher Education?" Healy, "Critics Say New Trustees Are Politicizing Presidential Searches.".
35. At the University of Iowa the new president of the board moves to eliminate programs. Scott, "Defending the Tradition of Shared Governance.".
36. At the University of Minnesota the regents call for major revision of the tenure rules. Denise K. Magner, "Minnesota Professors Irate Over Plans They Say Threaten Tenure", May 17, 1996.
37. Magner, "Minnesota Regents' Proposals Stir Controversy with Faculty", September 20, 1996.
38. The Chronicle of Higher Education reports that the Faculty Senate at the University of Notre Dame. Alex P. Kellogg, "Faculty Senate at Notre Dame, Angry over Lack of Clout, Votes to Dissolve", Ibid., May 18, 2002.
39. New York University's Board of Trustees handpick a new university president. Peer Review, Ibid., May 18, 2001.
40. Auburn University faculty express outrage. Julianne Basinger, "Trustees' Ouster of President at Auburn Fuels Widespread Anger", Ibid., March 16, 2001.
41. Under strong pressure from the Mayor. Karen W. Arenson, "Mayor's Choice Picked to Run Hunter College", New York Times, January 30, 2001.
42. The policy-making body for higher education in Virginia. Catherine R. Stimpson, "Activist Trustees Wield Power Gone Awry", Chronicle of Higher Education, January 16, 1998.
43. In 1995 the Florida legislature limited all baccalaureate degree programs to 120 credit hours. Florida Senate Bill 2330 enacted in the 1995 legislative session.
44. A SUNY system trustee upset by a conference. Stimpson, "Activist Trustees Wield Power Gone Awry." The Chronicle of Higher Education, January 16, 1998.
45. The Board of Visitors at George Mason University. Magner, "Battle over Academic Control Pits Faculty Against Governing Board at George Mason U." Ibid., June 18, 1999.
46. A member of the board of James Madison University. Stimson, "Activists Trustees Wield Power Gone Awry".
47. A Florida regent calls for state universities to achieve higher targets. Statement in a 1999 public meeting of the Florida Board of Regents in relation to board policy and directions on university accountability.
48. Faculty members at Indiana University decry. Basinger, "In Evaluating the College President, Governing Boards Assert More Authority", Chronicle of Higher Education, August 13, 1999.
49. A blue-ribbon panel of the Association of Governing Boards. "Renewing the Academic Presidency: Stronger Leadership for Tougher Times", Report of the Commission on the Academic Presidency. Association of Governing Boards, Washington, D. C., 1996.
50. The Chronicle of Higher Education reports. Katherine S. Mangan, "Corporate Know-How Lands Presidencies for a Growing Number of Business Deans", Chronicle of Higher Education, March 27, 1998.
51. University of Pennsylvania trustees publicly reprimand. Lazerson, "Who Owns Higher Education?".
52. "large numbers of Ph. D.'s regard themselves as independent professionals." Christopher Jencks and David Riesman, The Academic Revolution, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977, p. 14.
53. "Today, a scholar's orientation to his institution. " Theodore Caplow and Reece J. McGee, The Academic Marketplace, New York: Basic, 1958, p. 85.
54. A 1996 survey of approximately 34, 000 full-time faculty across 392 colleges and universities. "The American College Teacher: National Norms for the 1995-96 H. E. R. I. Faculty Survey", University of California at Los Angeles Higher Education Research Institute.
55. National surveys have consistently found that full-time faculty across all types of institutions tend to work inordinately long hours. "Background Characteristics, Work Activities, and Compensation of Faculty and Instructional Staff in Postsecondary Institutions: Fall 1998", 1999 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty, National Center for Education Statistics, U. S. Department of Education, Washington, D. C.
56. One such "teaching incentive" program. The program discussed here is the Teaching Incentive Program, familiarly known as TIP, initiated by the Florida legislature and implemented by the Board of Regents. TIP was in effect for the state's ten-university system for a good part of the 1990s.
57. "Although I realized that I was moving away from issues of concern to academics." Richard D. Breslin, "Lessons from the Presidential Trenches", Chronicle of Higher Education, November 10, 2000.
58. Fewer than 10% of America's more than 3, 500 colleges and universities have truly selective admissions policies. Chester E. Finn Jr. and Bruno V. Manno, "What's Wrong with the American University?: Behind the Curtain", Wilson Quarterly, Winter 1996, pp. 44-53.
59. Some 63% of high school graduates in America now go on to at least begin some form of further education. U. S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 118th ed., U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1998.
60. Eighty-one percent of four-year public institutions and 63% of four-year private institutions now offer remedial courses. "Remedial Education of Higher Education Institutions in Fall 1995", Postsecondary Education Quick Information System, National Center for Education Statistics, U. S. Department of Education, Washington, D. C.
61. Albert Shanker... noted that more than half of the students going on to college in America would not qualify for admission to colleges in Europe or Japan. As reported by Marc Tucker in "Many U. S. Colleges Are Really Inefficient, High-Priced Secondary Schools", Chronicle of Higher Education, June 5, 1991.
62. Grade inflation has risen to notorious levels even in elite universities. Harvey C. Mansfield, "Grade Inflation: It's Time to Face the Facts", Ibid., April 6, 2001.
63. A 1993 survey by the National Center for Education Statistics. "Instructional Faculty and Staff in Higher Education Institutions: Fall 1987 and Fall 1992", 1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty, National Center for Education Statistics, U. S. Department of Education. Washington, D. C.:
64. Robin Wilson, "Contracts Replace the Tenure Track for a Growing Number of Professors", Chronicle of Higher Education, June 12, 1998.
65. a survey of humanities and social science disciplines. Ana Marie Cox, "Study Shows Colleges' Dependence on Their Part-Time Instructors", Ibid., December 1, 2000.
66. Common to many of these and other critical treatments is the view that faculty control is responsible for the ills of higher education. This argument is well expressed by Alan Wolfe in "What's Wrong with the American University?: The Feudal Culture of the Postmodern University", Wilson Quarterly, Winter 1996 pp. 54-66.
67. "If it was ever true that faculty members' pursuit of individual interests." William H. Danforth, "Universities Are Our Responsibility", Science, 1995, vol. 269, 1651.
68. The Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges (AGB) has argued that the current environment requires speed in administrative decision making. Courtney Leatherman, "Shared Governance under Siege", Chronicle of Higher Education, January 30, 1998.
69. "Renewing the Academic Presidency: Stronger Leadership for Tougher Times." Report of the Commission on the Presidency. Association of Governing Boards, Washington, D. C.: 1996.
70. "the real governance does not occur in the senate." James Duderstadt quoted in Leatherman, "Shared Governance under Siege."
71. "A people who will not sacrifice for the common good cannot expect to have any common good." James Lincoln Collier, The Rise of Selfishness in America, New York, Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 262.
72. "Unfortunately, many trustees (and more than a few college presidents) are apprehensive." Richard Chait, "Trustees and Professors: So Often at Odds, So Much Alike", Chronicle of Higher Education, August 4, 2000.
73. an analysis of data from the 1992-1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty found. "Instructional Faculty and Staff in Higher Education Institutions Who Taught Classes to Undergraduates: Fall 1992", National Center for Education Statistics, U. S. Department of Education, Washington, D. C.
74. Furthermore, a national survey of science and engineering faculty at research universities. National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators, 1996 (NSB 96-21), U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1996.
75. "We believe that the state of undergraduate education at research universities is (in) a crisis." "Reinventing Undergraduate Education: A Blueprint for America's Research Universities", Report of the Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University, State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1998, Conclusion, p. 1, Overview, pp. 2-3, http://www.stonybrook.edu/boyerreport.
76. "The most valuable and farsighted concept to emerge from the original (Vannevar) Bush vision. " C. M. Vest, "Research Universities: Overextended, Underfocused, Overstressed, Underfunded", Speech delivered at the Cornell Symposium on the American University, May 22, 1995, p. 4.
77. "all the patrons of the university... have shared this burden. " Harold T. Shapiro, "Notes on the American University in a Changing World", Presentation given at the First Richard A. Harvill Conference on Higher Education, University of Arizona at Tuscon, November 23, 1992.
78. While a good deal of research has been addressed regarding this issue, the overall results are equivocal." M. J. Finkelstein, The American Academic Profession, Columbus: Ohio State Press, 1984.
79. K. A. Feldman, "Research Productivity and Scholarly Accomplishment of College Teachers as Related to Their Instructional Effectiveness: A Review and Exploration", Research in Higher Education, 1987, vol. 26, pp. 227-298.
80. A. W. Astin, What Matters in College, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1993.
81. "the nostalgic image of the avuncular 'prof '." Shapiro, "Notes on the American University in a Changing World."
82. we need to recognize "that inquiry, investigation, and discovery are the heart of the (university) enterprise." "Reinventing Undergraduate Education: A Blueprint for America's Research Universities", Report of the Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University, State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1998, Section: The University as Ecosystem, p. 1;
83. Section: Make Research-Based Learning the Standard, p. 1, http://www.stonybrook.edu/boyerreport.
84. It is interesting to compare the commission's recommendations with actions recently proposed by Murray Sperber." Sperber, "End the Mediocrity of Our Public Universities", Chronicle of Higher Education, October 20, 2000.
85. Richard Felder... has suggested a strategy. Felder, "The Myth of the Superhuman Professor", Journal of Engineering Education, April 1994, pp. 105-110.
86. For further discussion of Kennedy's proposal, see "Efforts to Limit "Trivial" Scholarship Win Backing from Many Academics", by Carolyn J. Mooney, Chronicle of Higher Education, May 22, 1991.
87. A reconceptualization of faculty work roles proposed by Ernest Boyer. Ernest Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate, Special Report of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1990.
88. When Galileo moved from his academic position at the University of Padua. Dava Sobel, Galileo's Daughter, New York: Penguin Books, 2000, p. 36.
89. "scholarship begins in curiosity, but it ends in communication. "Edmund S. Morgan, address to a freshman class at Yale, quoted in Jacob Neusner, "On Submitting to the Process of Education", Transaction Periodicals Consortium, a Publication of the National Association of Scholars, Rutgers-The State University, New Brunswick, N. J., 1998, vol. 11, 11.
90. the bar for tenure is rising even further. Robin Wilson, "A Higher Bar for Earning Tenure", Chronicle of Higher Education, January 5, 2001.
91. Working with survey data provided by the U. S. Education Department, the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) found. Ernst Benjamin, "Disparities in the Salaries and Appointments of Academic Women and Men", Academe, January-February 1999, pp. 60-62.
92. "The teacher is entitled to full freedom in research and the publication of the results." Louis Joughin (Ed.), Academic Freedom and Tenure: A Handbook of the American Association of University Professors, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967, p. 35.
93. The AAUP estimates that in a typical year. As estimated by Jordan Kurland of the national office of the American Association of University Professors, Washington, D. C., based on forty years experience. Personal communication.
94. Florida legislative committee investigations in the 1960s. James A. Schnur, "Cold Warriors in the Hot Sunshine: USF and the Johns Committee", Sunland Tribune, November, 1992, pp. 9-15.
95. Schnur, "Cold Warriors in the Hot Sunshine: The Johns Committee's Assault on Civil Liberties in Florida, 1956-1965", Master's thesis, 1995, Department of History, University of South Florida, University of South Florida library.
96. As Alan Charles Kors and Harvey Silvergate attest. Kors and Silvergate, The Shadow University: The Betrayal of Liberty on America's Campuses, New York: Free Press, 1998, p. 5.
97. "Today, knowledge, its critical analysis, its creation, and its transmission. " Dominique G. Homberger and A. Ravi P. Rau, "Preserve the Roles of Tenure, Teaching, and Research", Scientist, May 11, 1998, 8.
98. "But the provision of academic freedom is by no means the only consideration. " Saunders Mac Lane, "The Travail of the University", Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 1997, vol. 41, 5.
99. Studies examining this question have tracked publication by faculty beginning with their initial appointment and through the end of their careers. Nancy Stern, "Age and Achievement in Mathematics: A Case-Study in the Sociology of Science", Social Studies of Science, 1978, vol. 8, pp. 127-140.
100. Stephen Cole, "Age and Scientific Performance", American Journal of Sociology, 1979, vol. 84, 958-977.
101. Arthur Diamond Jr., "The Life-Cycle Research Productivity of Mathematicians and Scientists", Journal of Gerontology, 1986, vol. 41, 520-525.
102. Thomas H. Goodwin and Raymond D. Sauer, "Life Cycle Productivity in Academic Research: Evidence from Cumulative Publication Histories of Academic Economists", Southern Economic Journal, 1995, vol. 61, 728-743.
103. "Those who argue that tenure leads to declining productivity." Myles Brand, "Why Tenure Is Indispensable", Chronicle of Higher Education, April 2, 1999.
104. if 52 percent of the faculty in the average university department is tenured. The percentage of full-time faculty on tenure in public research universities is somewhat higher (63) and somewhat lower in private research universities (50), according to the U. S. Department of Education, 1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty. But this variation does not question the conclusion advanced here regarding generally acceptable rates of faculty turnover.
105. But even more disturbing are recent analyses by Jay Chronister and Roger Baldwin. As reported by Courtney Leatherman, "Growth in Positions Off the Tenure Track Is a Trend that's Here to Stay, Study Finds", Chronicle of Higher Education, April 9, 1999.
106. some forty institutions around the country have now adopted contract systems. Wilson, "Contracts Replace the Tenure Track for a Growing Number of Professors", Ibid., June 12, 1998.
107. "If such activities are high priorities." Cary Nelson, "The War Against the Faculty", Ibid., April 16, 1999.
108. "driving through their careers on autopilot." Karla Haworth, "Florida Regents Approve Post-Tenure Reviews for All Professors", Ibid., October 11, 1996.
109. This movement is now underway in one form or another in thirty-seven states. Post-Tenure Faculty Review and Renewal: Experienced Voices, Christine M. Licata and Joseph C. Morreale (Eds.), American Association for Higher Education, Washington, D. C., 2002.
110. an actual record of the accounting that a particular but representative public research university was expected to provide. The performance measures listed are from the annual report of the University of Connecticut submitted in 1990 to the Governor's Office and to the state legislature following a format that had been in place for many years.
111. one large state university system required more than a hundred and fifty such reports from its individual member institutions annually. This number is based on a count of the number of individual reports submitted by a member institution of the state university system of Florida in 2000.
112. a report on reporting. Such a report was required by the Chancellor's Office of the state university system of Florida in 2000 in an effort to reduce perceived errors and late submissions in the voluminous reports required of the member institutions.
113. the National Association of Scholars has documented a general loosening of the structure, content, and rigor of the general education requirement. The Dissolution of General Education: 1914-1993, Princeton, N. J.: National Association of Scholars, 1996.
114. An indication of how faculty themselves might approach accountability reporting can be seen in a model. The model outlined here was developed at the University of Connecticut in the early 1990s and is described in a report published by the University of Connecticut Provost Office in 1993.
115. The model is also described by the author in an article published in Assessment and Accountability Forum, 2000, vol. 10, 5-7, 18.
116. The U. S. Patent Office has reported a steady increase in the annual number of utility patents assigned to academic institutions. "Technology Assessment and Forecast Report: U. S. Colleges and Universities-Utility Patent Grants 1969-1999, U. S. Patent and Trademark Office, Office of Information Dissemination Service, Technology Assessment and Forecast Program, Washington, D. C., September 2000.
117. Further assessment of the impact of this act is provided through the annual survey of the... members of the Association of University Technology Managers, Association of University Technology Managers, AUTM Licensing Survey, FY 1999 Survey Summary, Northbrook, Illinois.
118. Columbia University alone received $96 million in licensing fees and royalties... in 1999. Karen W. Arenson, "Columbia Leads Academic Pack in Turning Profit from Research", New York Times, August 2, 2000, A1, A25.
119. The University of California at Berkeley signed an agreement with Novartis. Goldie Blumenstyk, "A Vilified Corporate Partnership Produces Little Change (Except Better Facilities)", Chronicle of Higher Education, June 22, 2001.
120. These interests are apparent in the very names of many endowed chairs... the past decade has seen literally scores of new corporation-endowed chairs created annually. Julianne Basinger, "Increase in Number of Chairs Endowed by Corporations Prompts New Concerns", Ibid., April 24, 1998.
121. a 1994 study found that in 1988 fifty Stanford-based firms. James F. Gibbon, "Silicon Valley: Startups, Strategies, and the Stanford Connection", MRS Bulletin, A Publication of the Materials Research Society, 1994, vol. 19, 4-10.
122. Similarly, a 1997 study of the financial impact of MIT on the state of Massachusetts. "MIT: The Impact of Innovation", Economics Department, BankBoston, Boston, March 1997.
123. the state of California announced the most ambitious university-based economic development plan to date. John Markoff, "California Sets up Centers for Basic Scientific Research", New York Times, December 8, 2000, A20.
124. "The most important thing a state government can do to improve local economies." Governor Gray Davis as quoted by Markoff, "California Sets up Centers for Basic Scientific Research."
125. Industry research and development (R&D) expenditures at universities and colleges have increased. National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics, Academic Research and Development Expenditures: Fiscal Years 2000, NSF 02-308, Project Officer, M. Marge Machen, Arlington, Virginia, 2002.
126. an even higher level of corporate donations to universities. Voluntary Support of Education, 2001. New York: Council for Aid to Education, 2002.
127. A 1996 survey of several hundred life-science companies. David Blumenthal, Nancyanne Causino, Eric G. Campbell, and Karen Seashore Louis, "Relationships Between Academic Institutions and Industry in the Life Sciences-An Industry Survey", New England Journal of Medicine, 1996, vol. 334, 368-373.
128. In a related survey of several thousand academic life-science faculty. Blumenthal, Campbell, Melissa Anderson, Causino, and Louis, "Withholding Research Results in Academic Life Science: Evidence from a National Survey of Faculty", Journal of the American Medical Association, 1997, vol. 277, 1224-1228.
129. the well publicized industry experience of Dr. Betty Dong. Ralph T. King Jr., "How a Drug Firm Paid for University Study, Then Undermined It", Wall Street Journal, April 25, 1996, 1.
130. Gretchen Vogel, "Long-Suppresed Study Finally Sees Light of Day", Science, 1997, vol. 276, 525-526.
131. In Providence, Rhode Island, an occupational health physician at a Brown University-affiliated teaching hospital. Wade Roush, "Publishing Sensitive Data: Who Calls the Shots?" Science, 1997, vol. 276, 523-524.
132. "In another case, a drug manufacturer demanded up to $10 million from an AIDS researcher." Katherine S. Mangan, "Company Seeks $10 million from Scientist and University", Chronicle of Higher Education, November 17, 2000.
133. A 1996 review of the publications of more than a thousand scientists at universities in Massachusetts. S. Krimsky, L. S. Rothenberg, P. Stott, and G. Kyle, "Financial Interests of Authors in Scientific Journals: A Pilot Study of 14 Publications", Science and Engineering Ethics, 1996, vol. 2, 395-410.
134. A survey of life scientists in the fifty top-funded research universities. Campbell, Louis, and Blumenthal, "Looking a Gift Horse in the Mouth", Journal of the American Medical Association, 1998, vol. 279, 995-999.
135. a recent wryly humorous observation in the journal Science. "The Burden of Baring All", Science, 2000, vol. 288, 1331.
136. One of the most comprehensive was conducted by a team of Canadian researchers. Henry Thomas Stelfox, Grace Chua, Keith O'Rourke, and Allan S. Detsky, "Conflict of Interest in the Debate Over Calcium-Channel Antagonists", New England Journal of Medicine, 1998, vol. 338, 101-106.
137. Another relatively large-scale study examined the published outcomes of research studies... in relation to whether the research was done under drug company support or without such support. Mildred K. Cho and Lisa A. Bero, "The Qualtiy of Drug Studies Published in Symposium Proceedings", Annals of Internal Medicine, 1996, vol. 124, 485-489.
138. Several other clinical trials studies have reported outcomes of a similar nature. R. A. Davidson, "Source of Funding and Outcome of Clinical Trials", Journal of General Internal Medicine, 1986, vol. 1, 155-158.
139. P. A. Rochon, J. H. Gurwitz, R. W. Simms, P. R. Fortin, D. T. Felson, K. L. Minaker, and T. C. Chalmers, "A Study of Manufacturer-Supported Trials of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in the Treatment of Arthritis", Archives of Internal Medicine, 1994, vol. 154, 157-163.
140. A survey of more than 60, 000 papers appearing in 181 peer-reviewed journals in 1997. Krimsky and Rothenberg, "Conflict of Interest Policies in Science and Medical Journals: Editorial Practices and Author Disclosures", Science and Engineering Ethics, 2001, vol. 7, 205-211.
141. A recently reported study of this question found that from 1970 to 1994 the number of bachelor's degrees in English, foreign languages, philosophy, and religion all declined. James Engell and Anthony Dangerfield, "The Market-Model University: Humanities in the Age of Money", Harvard Magazine, May-June 1998, pp. 48-55.
142. "We borrow the language of business because we are forced to operate like businesses." Michele Tolela Myers, "A Student Is Not an Input", New York Times, Op-Ed page, March 26, 2001.
143. "What do these notions mean? To me, they involve an increased dependence on industry and philanthropy for operating the university." James Robert Brown, "Privatizing the University-the New Tragedy of the Commons", Science, 2000, vol. 290, 1701.
144. Harvard Medical School, worried that they might have trouble recruiting and retaining faculty. Mangan, "Harvard Medical School Opts Not to Ease Its Conflictof-Interest Policies", Chronicle of Higher Education, June 9, 2000.
145. Marcia Angell,... argued that the best way to restore public confidence in the scientific enterprise. Mangan and Goldie Blumenstyk, "Conflict Rules Are Criticized for Vagueness", ibid., November 17, 2000.
146. Jeffrey Brainard, "The Ties that Blind?" Ibid., September 8, 2000.
147. "Today it's undeniable that universities, public or private, are modeled not on medieval guilds, governed by their members, but on modern corporations." Ellen Willis, "Why Professors Turn to Organized Labor", New York Times, Op-Ed page, May 28, 2001.