Preventive diplomacy at the UN

Preventive Diplomacy at the UN

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-266

  Ramcharan, Bertrand G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA   (Guyana)

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EID: 84896153408     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (391)

1. Craig N. Murphy, The UN Development Programme: A Better Way? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
2. D. John Shaw, UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid (New York: Palgrave, 2001).
3. Maggie Black, The Children and the Nations (New York: UNICEF, 1986);
4. and Maggie Black, Children First: The Story of UNICEF (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
5. Thomas G. Weiss and Sam Daws, eds., The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
6. Louis Emmerij, Richard Jolly, and Thomas G. Weiss, The Power of UN Ideas: Lessons from the First 60 Years (New York: UNIHP, 2005), 7.
7. For a review of the initial volumes, see Robert J. Berg, "The UN Intellectual History Project: Review of a Literature", Global Governance 12, no. 3(2006):325-341.
8. See S. Neil MacFarlane and Yuen Foong-Khong, Human Security and the UN: A Critical History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006).
9. Roger Normand and Sarah Zaidi, Human Rights at the UN: The Political History of Universal Justice (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008).
10. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace 1995 (New York: UN, 1995) (contains the original 1992 document and the 1995 supplement);
11. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Development 1995 (New York: UN, 1995);
12. and Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Democratization (New York: UN, 1996).
13. Programme Planning: Preparation of the Next Medium-Term Plan: Note by the Secretary-General: Enclosure: Some Perspectives on the Work of the United Nations in the 1990s, A/42/512, 2 September 1987.
14. Kofi A. Annan, Prevention of Armed Conflict (New York: UN, 2001).
15. Louis Emmerij, Richard Jolly, and Thomas G. Weiss, Ahead of the Curve? UN Ideas and Global Challenges (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), xi.
16. Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Preventing Deadly Conflict: Final Report (Washington, D. C.: Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1997).
17. See also David A. Hamburg, No More Killing Fields: Preventing Deadly Conflict (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002).
18. Andrew W. Cordier and Wilder Foote, Public Papers of the Secretaries-General of the United Nations, vol. 1, Trygvie Lie, 1946-1953 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 134.
19. General Assembly, "Introduction to the Report of the Secretary General on the Work of the Organization, 16 June 1959-15 June 1960", General Assembly Official Records, 1960, 15th Session, Supplement No. 1A (A4390/Add.1), 5-7.
20. U Thant, View from the UN: The Memoirs of U Thant (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1978), 31-32.
21. Kurt Waldheim, The Challenge of Peace (New York: Rawson Wade Publishers Inc., 1980), 5-6.
22. Programme Planning: Preparation of the Next Medium-Term Plan: Note by the Secretary-General: Enclosure: Some Perspectives on the Work of the United Nations in the 1990s, A/42/512, 2 September 1987, 3.
23. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Development 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1995).
24. Kofi Annan, In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All (New York: UN, 2005).
25. Ban Ki-moon, "Address to the United Nations International School-United Nations Conference on 'Global Warming: Confronting the Crisis'", UN press release SG/SM10893, 1 March 2007.
26. Joel Larus, ed., From Collective Security to Preventive Diplomacy (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1965).
27. Richard I. Miller, Dag Hammarskjöld and Crisis Diplomacy (New York: Oceana, 1961).
28. Brian Urquhart, Hammarskjöld (New York: Alfred K. Knopf, 1972).
29. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping (New York: United Nations, 1992).
30. Kofi Annan, Prevention of Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General (General Assembly document A/55/985), 7 June 2001;
31. Kofi Annan, Interim Report of the Secretary-General on the Prevention of Armed Conflict (General Assembly document A/58/365), 12 September 2003;
32. Kofi Annan, Progress Report on the Prevention of Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General (General Assembly document A/60/891), 18 July 2006.
33. General Assembly resolution 377 (V), 3 November 1950.
34. As H. G. Nicholas cautioned", If the action of one or more of the members violates the Charter, the Secretary-General's duty is clear, but when the time comes, as it must, for healing the breach⋯ the Secretary-General's partiality, though it be the partiality of righteousness, is likely to be an offence in the nostrils of the returned prodigal." H. G. Nicholas, The United Nations as a Political Institution, 4th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 172.
35. See Brian Urquhart, Hammarskjöld, 262-292 and 293-314. Hammarskjöld considered the Lebanon operation "a classical case of preventive diplomacy", the main object of which was to keep the Cold War out of the Middle East (256).
36. See Victor-Yves Ghebali, "Preventive Diplomacy as Visited from the OSCE", in The OSCE and Preventive Diplomacy, ed. Victor-Yves Ghebali and Daniel Warner, PSIO Occasional Paper No. 1/99 (Geneva: Program for the Study of International Organizations, Geneva Graduate Institute of International Studies, 1999), 7, available online at hei.unige.ch/psio/fichiers/OSCE%201.99.pdf (accessed 27 September 2007).
37. Mohammed Bedjaoui, "Preventive Diplomacy: Development, Education and Human Rights", in Preventive Diplomacy, ed. Kevin Cahill (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 37.
38. "Secretary-General, Addressing Student Conference, Compares Challenge of Climate Change to Cold War-Era Nuclear Threat", UN press release SG/SM 10893, 1 March 2007.
39. Kalevi J. Holsti, Peace and War: Armed Conflicts and International Order 1648-1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
40. F. H. Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), 1.
41. The Cambridge Modern History (New York, 1907-1925), 10:3
42. cited in René Albrecht-Carrié, The Concert of Europe 1815-1914 (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), 15.
43. See John Lowe, The Concert of Europe: International Relations 1814-1870 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1994).
44. Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace, 233.
45. See James Brown Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907: A Series of Lectures Delivered before the Johns Hopkins University in the Year 1908 (Boston: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1908).
46. See David W. Wainhouse, International Peace Observation (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966), 8.
47. Arthur W. Rovine, The First Fifty Years: The Secretary-General in World Politics 1920-1970 (Leiden, Netherlands: Sijthoff, 1970), 59.
48. See Wainhouse, International Peace Observation, 48.
49. Leland Goodrich and Anne Simons, Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents, 3rd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 589.
50. Final Report of the Preparatory Commission (Preparatory Commission document PC/20), 23 December 1945, 87.
51. Stephen Schwebel, The Secretary-General of the United Nations: His Political Powers and Practice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 23-26.
52. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Building Peace and Development 1994, Annual Report on the Work of the Organization (New York: United Nations, 1994).
53. This section, like the preceding one, is based on the experience of the author. For a recent account on the proceedings of the Security Council, see Chinmaya R. Gharekhan, The Horseshoe Table: An Inside View of the UN Security Council (Delhi: Pearson/Longman, 2006).
54. See "Blair Gives Backing for Darfur No-Fly Zone: Washington Develops Air Strike Plan for Sudan", Financial Times, 13 December 2006.
55. See Kurt Bassuener, "A No-Flight Zone Is Key", International Herald Tribune, 1 February 2006, 6.
56. See also Bertrand G. Ramcharan, "Contemporary Challenges of Human Rights Protection: A Call for Preventive Strategies", Rutgers Law Journal 37, no. 2(2006):495-516. This article states that "from the outset of the Darfur crisis it has been evident that aerial policing of the situation would be the only means of exercising protection over the civilian population being preyed upon by pro-government forces" (515).
57. Security Council Official Records, 1st Year, 70th Meeting, 20 September 1946, 404.
58. See also Goodrich and Simons, Charter of the United Nations, 591.
59. See Goodrich and Simons, Charter of the United Nations, 592.
60. See Letter Dated 25 June 1950 from the Representative of the United States of America to the Secretary General Transmitting a Communication to the President of the Security Council Concerning an Act of Aggression upon the Republic of Korea (Security Council document S/1495), 25 June 1950;
61. and "Cablegram Dated 25 June 1950 from the United Nations Commission on Korea to the Secretary General Concerning Aggression upon the Republic of Korea", S/1496, 25 June 1950.
62. Security Council Official Records, 5th Year, 473rd Meeting, 25 June 1950, 3.
63. Security Council Official Records, 11th Year, 748th Meeting, 30 October 1956.
64. Security Council Official Records, 16th Year, 964th Meeting, 28 July 1961, para. 86.
65. Security Council Official Records, 14th Year, 847th Meeting, 7 September 1959, 2-3.
66. See also Security Council Official Records, 15th Year, 873rd Meeting, 13 July 1960, 1-2.
67. Security Council Official Records, 16th Year, 962nd Meeting, 22 July 1961, paras. 2-3.
68. See Goodrich and Simons, Charter of the United Nations, 590.
69. See Goodrich and Simons, Charter of the United Nations, 592-593.
70. In 1972, on the initiative of Waldheim, the General Assembly put the problem of international terrorism on its agenda. Kurt Waldheim, The Challenge of Peace (New York: Rawson, Wade Publishers, 1977), 4.
71. See M. J. Peterson, The UN General Assembly (London: Routledge, 2006).
72. See UNITAR, Presidents of the General Assembly Speak Out (New York: United Nations Institute for Training and Research, 1986), 20.
73. See International Conciliation no. 444, October, in James Hyde, 1948: Peaceful Settlement. A Survey of Studies in the Interim Committee of the United Nations General Assembly (New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1948).
74. See also "Prevention of Armed Conflict", General Assembly resolution A/Res/57/337, 3 July 2003;
75. and Security Council resolution 1366(2001), 30 August 2001
76. both on Kofi Annan's Prevention of Armed Conflict.
77. See also Edward C. Luck, UN Security Council: Practice and Promise (London: Routledge, 2006).
78. United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects, General Assembly document A/CONF.192/115, 20 July 2001.
79. "United Nations Declaration and Programme of Action for a Culture of Peace", General Assembly document A/Res/53/243, 1999.
80. See Leon Gordenker, The UN Secretary-General and Secretariat (London: Routledge, 2005).
81. Arthur W. Rovine, The First Fifty Years: The Secretary-General in World Politics 1920-1970 (Leyden, Netherlands: Sijthoff, 1970), 249-250.
82. Rovine, The First Fifty Years, 225.
83. General Assembly Official Records, Third Session, Supp. no. 1, 5 July 1948.
84. Andrew W. Cordier and Wilde Foote, Public Papers of the Secretaries-General of the United Nations, vol. 1, Trygve Lie, 1946-1953 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 156.
85. Cordier and Foote, Public Papers, 1:171.
86. Brian Urquhart cites Ralph Bunche's description of this concept: "The important aim of the UN 'presence' is the establishment of some sort of UN arrangement on the spot with a purpose of watching local developments, holding a finger on the pulse and keeping UN Headquarters fully informed about developments in that area. For the most part those who constitute and lead the 'presence' operation, whatever its form, are expected to play their role pretty much by ear, to give well considered advice where needed and requested, to intervene as necessary but always delicately and diplomatically, and to keep constantly in consultation with the Secretary-General for advice and guidance." Brian Urquhart, Hammarksjöld (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 294-295.
87. See "Statement by Secretary General on Principles Regarding Political Fact-Finding or 'Good Offices' Missions", UN press release SG/849, 27 August 1959.
88. See Richard I. Miller, Dag Hammarskjöld and Crisis Diplomacy (New York: Oceana, 1961).
89. Brian Urquhart, Hammarskjöld (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 47.
90. Kai Falkman, To Speak for the World: Speeches and Statements by Dag Hammarskjöld (Stockholm: Atlantis, 2005), 137-138.
91. "Introduction to the Annual Report", General Assembly Official Records, 15th Session, Supp. no. 1A, 31 August 1960, 4.
92. U Thant, View from the UN: The Memoirs of U Thant (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1967), 27.
93. Kurt Waldheim, The Challenge of Peace (New York: Rawson, Wade Publishers, 1980), 5-6.
94. Kurt Waldheim, In The Eye of the Storm: The Memoirs of Kurt Waldheim, Secretary-General of the United Nations 1972-1982 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985), 1-11, 156-169.
95. Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, "The Role of the UN Secretary-General", Cyril Foster Lecture, Oxford University, 1986, 4. Published as UN press release SG/SM/3870, 13 May 1986.
96. "The Office for Research and the Collection of Information", UN document ST/SGB/SB/223, 1 March 1987.
97. Stephen Schwebel, The Secretary General of the United Nations: His Political Powers and Practice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1952), 23-26.
98. Programme Planning. Preparation of the Next Medium Term Plan. Note by the Secretary General. Enclosure: Some Perspectives on the Work of the United Nations in the 1990s, UN document A/42/512, 2 September 1987, 2. (Hereafter Perspectives for the 1990s.)
99. Perspectives for the 1990s, 4.
100. Perspectives for the 1990s, 6.
101. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, "Challenges of Preventive Diplomacy: The Role of the United Nations and Its Secretary-General", in Preventive Diplomacy: Stopping Wars before They Start, ed. Kevin M. Cahill (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 16-34.
102. Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations (General Assembly document A/55/305-S/2000/809), 21 August 2000, section G.
103. Supplement to An Agenda for Peace: Position Paper of the Secretary General on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations (General Assembly document A/50/60, S/1995/1), 3 January 1995, 2-3.
104. "Note by the President of the Security Council", (Security Council document S/23500) 31 January 1992, 3, available online at http://www.stimson.org/cnp/pdf/S23500-UNSC.pdf (accessed 16 September 2007).
105. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-keeping (New York: United Nations, 1992), 11, 7-8.
106. Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace.
107. "An Agenda for Peace: Preventative Diplomacy and Related Matters", General Assembly resolution 47/120A, 18 December 1992, Part VII: Role of the General Assembly in Preventive Diplomacy.
108. Chinmaya R. Gharekhan and Boutros Boutros-Ghali, The Horseshoe Table: An Inside View of the UN Security Council (Delhi: Longman, 2006).
109. Department of Political Affairs, "A Report on Preventive Diplomacy", March-December 1992. In an interview with the author in Geneva on 2 August 2006, Mr. Petrovsky provided the author with a copy of the confidential report he had submitted to Secretary General Boutros-Ghali. This report was never published.
110. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Building Peace and Development: Report on the Work of the Organization from the Forty-Eighth to the Forty-Ninth Session of the General Assembly (New York: United Nations, 1994), paras. 790-791.
111. "An Agenda for Development: Report of the Secretary-General" (General Assembly document A/48/935), 6 May 1994, para. 44.
112. Published as Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Development 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1995).
113. An Agenda for Development, para. 3.
114. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Democratization (New York: United Nations, 1996).
115. Prevention of Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General (Security Council document S/2001/574), 7 June 2001.
116. Danilo Türk, assistant secretary-general for Political Affairs, UN Department of Political Affairs, Keynote Speech at Seminar on Conflict Prevention and Peace-Building in Southeast Asia, Manila, Philippines, 19-21 February 2002.
117. This account of the Kofi Annan period is based on Tapio Kaanninen and C. Kumar, "The Evolution of the Doctrine and Practice of Early Warning and Conflict Prevention in the UN System", in Conflict Prevention in Practice: Essays in Honour of Jim Sutterlin, ed. Bertrand G. Ramcharan (Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005), 45-60.
118. Progress Report on the Prevention of Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General (General Assembly document A/60/891), 18 July 2006.
119. Ban Ki-moon, "Acceptance Speech", New York, 3 October 2006, available online at http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/sg-elect/ban-speech.htm (accessed 3 October 2007);
120. "Chad: Ban Ki-moon Proposes Peacekeeping Force with Some 11, 000 Personnel", UN News Centre, 23 February 2007, available online at http://www0.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21661&Cr=chad&Cr1 (accessed 3 October 2007);
121. Ban Ki-moon, "Address to the United Nations International School-United Nations Conference on 'Global Warming: Confronting the Crisis'", UN News Centre, 1 March 2007, available online at http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocus/sgspeeches/search-full.asp?statID=70 (accessed 3 October 2007).
122. General Assembly, "Introduction to the Report of the Secretary General on the Work of the Organization, 16 June 1959-15 June 1960", General Assembly Official Records, 1960, 15th Session, Supplement No. 1A (A4390/Add.1), 5-7.
123. See the International Peace Academy, "From Promise to Practice: Strengthening UN Capacities for the Prevention of Violent Conflict", report on Security Council Workshop, 9-10 February 2001, West Point, New York, 1.
124. See, for example, Elizabeth Cousens, "Conflict Prevention", in The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century, ed. David. M. Malone (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 101-116;
125. and Thomas G. Weiss, "The UN's Prevention Pipe-Dream", Berkeley Journal of International Law 14, no. 2(1997):501-515.
126. See Bertrand G. Ramcharan, The Security Council and Human Rights (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 2002).
127. "On the Role of the Security Council in the Prevention of Armed Conflict", Security Council resolution 1366(2001), 30 August 2001, 3.
128. Cousens, "Conflict Prevention", 114.
129. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2004-July 2005", General Assembly Official Records, 60th Session, Supplement No. 2 (A/60/2), 21 September 2005.
130. "Report of the Security Council 16 June-31 July 2002", 27 September 2002, General Assembly Official Records, 57th Session, Supplement No. 2 (A/57/2), 3.
131. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2003-31 July 2004", 29 September 2004, General Assembly Official Records, 59th Session, Supplement No. 2 (A/59/2), 4-5.
132. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2002-31 July 2003", 23 September 2003, General Assembly Official Records, 58th Session, Supplement No. 2 (A/58/2), 4.
133. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2003-31 July 2004, 29 September 2004", 7.
134. "Report of the Security Council 1 16 June-31 July 2002", 27 September 2002, 4-5.
135. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2002-31 July 2003", 23 September 2003, 5.
136. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2003-31 July 2004", 29 September 2004, 8.
137. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2004-July 2005", 21 September 2005, 11.
138. B. G. Ramcharan, "Preventing War between Eritrea and Yemen over the Hanish Islands", in Conflict Prevention in Practice: Essays in Honour of Jim Sutterlin, ed. B. G. Ramcharan (Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2005), 166-167.
139. "Report of the Security Council 16 June 2000-15 June 2001", 30 June 2001.
140. See Peter Van Walsum, "Conflict Containment: The Security Council Mission to East Timor", in Conflict Prevention in Practice, ed. Bertrand G. Ramcharan, 191-198 (Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005).
141. Marrack Goulding, "Observation, Triage, and Initial Therapy. Fact-Finding Missions and Other Techniques", in Preventive Diplomacy, ed. Kevin M. Cahill (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 144-153.
142. "Declaration on Fact Finding by the United Nations in the Field of the maintenance of International Peace and Security", General Assembly resolution 46/59, 9 December 1991.
143. See also Axel Berg, "The 1991 Declaration on Fact-Finding by the United Nations", European Journal of International Law 4, no. 1(1992):107-114.
144. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2002-31 July 2003", 23 September 2003, 2.
145. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2004-31 July 2005", 21 September 2005, 12.
146. Report of the Security Council Mission to Central Africa, 21 to 25 November 2004 (Security Council document S/2004/934), 30 November 2004;
147. "Report of the Security Council 1 August 2004-31 July 2005", 21 September 2005, 7.
148. UN News Centre, "Security Council Mission Recommends Dozens of Peacebuilding Actions for Central Africa", 23 November 2005, available at http://www.monuc.org/news.aspx?newsID=9100.
149. See Michael Doyle and Nicholas Sambanis, Making War and Building Peace: United Nations Peace Operations (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 2006).
150. Collier, Development and Conflict, 7-8.
151. Kofi Annan, In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All (New York: United Nations, 2005).
152. For its agenda, see "Provisional Agenda", PBC/OC/1/1, 21 June 2006.
153. Paraphrased from "Post-Conflict Peacebuilding", Security Council resolution 1645(2005), 20 December 2005, 2.
154. Letter dated 21 June 2006 from the President of the Security Council Addressed to the Secretary-General (Peacebuilding Commission document PBC/OC/1/2), 21 June 2006.
155. Progress Report on the Prevention of Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General (General Assembly document A/60/981), 18 July 2006, para. 109.
156. Letter Dated 3 August 2006 from the Permanent Representative of Ghana to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General (Security Council document S/2006/610), 3 August 2006.
157. Report of the 5509th Meeting of the Security Council (Security Council document S/PV.5509), 9 August 2006, 3.
158. UNITAR, The Quiet Approach: A Study of the Good Offices Exercised by the United Nations Secretary-General in the Cause of Peace (New York: UNITAR, 1972).
159. Bertrand G. Ramcharan, Humanitarian Good Offices: The Good Offices of the Secretary-General in the Field of Human Rights (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983).
160. Trygve Lie, In the Cause of Peace: Seven Years with the United Nations (New York: Macmillan, 1954), 215.
161. Arthur W. Rovine, The First Fifty Years: The Secretary-General in World Politics, 1920-1970 (Leiden, Netherlands: Sijthoff, 1970), 229.
162. "Complaint of Detention and Imprisonment of United Nations Military Personnel in Violation of the Korean Armistice Agreement", General Assembly resolution 906 (IX), 10 December 1954.
163. Rovine, The First Fifty Years, 282.
164. Security Council Official Records, 11th Year, 751st Meeting, 31 October 1956, 2.
165. Second and Final Report of the Secretary-General on the Plan for an Emergency International United Nations Force (General Assembly document A/3302), 6November 1956.
166. Rovine, The First Fifty Years, 295.
167. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., "Foreword", in Robert Kennedy, Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 7.
168. Kennedy, Thirteen Days, 169.
169. Rovine, The First Fifty Years, 379.
170. See Brian Urquhart, Ralph Bunche: An American Odyssey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 426-429.
171. According to a UN publication on peacekeeping, "It was probably the most dangerous situation confronting the world since the Cuban Missile Crisis of October, 1962." See The Blue Helmets: A Review of United Nations Peacekeeping (New York: United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1985), 78.
172. See Kurt Waldheim, In the Eye of the Storm: The Memoirs of Kurt Waldheim, Secretary-General of the United Nations 1972-1982 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985), 60-61.
173. "The Six-Point Agreement", 11 November 1973, available online at http://www.mfa.gov. il/MFA/Foreign+Relations/ Israels+Foreign+Relations+since+1947/1947-1974/17+The+Six-Point+Agreement- +11+November+1973.htm.
174. For more about the Kilometer 101 Agreement and UNDOF, see James O. C. Jonah, What Price Survival of the United Nations? Memoirs of a Veteran International Civil Servant (Ibadan: Evans Brothers, 2006).
175. Henry Kissinger, Crisis: The Anatomy of Two Major Foreign Policy Crises (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003), 175-176.
176. See Letter of 25 October 1973 from Secretary-General to President of Security Council (Security Council document S/11049), 25 October 1973.
177. Report of the Secretary General to the Security Council Pursuant to Resolution 340 (1973) (Security Council document S/11052/Rev. 1), 27 October 1973.
178. For an account of the work of the commission, see Ramcharan, Humanitarian Good Offices, 129-138.
179. Marrack Goulding, Peacemonger (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).
180. Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Pilgrimage for Peace: A Secretary General's Memoir (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997), 392-393.
181. "Preventing War Between Eritrea and Yemen over the Hanish Islands", in Conflict Prevention in Practice: Essays in Honour of Jim Sutterlin, d. B. G. Ramcharan, 57-168 (Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2005).
182. Etter dated 18 June 1996 from the Secretary-General to the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/1996/447), 9 June 1996.
183. G. Ramcharan, "Preventing War between Eritrea and Yemen over the Hanish Islands", in Conflict Prevention in Practice: Essays in Honour of Jim Sutterlin, d. B. G. Ramcharan (Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2005), 164.
184. "Secretary-General Appeals for Maximum Restraint in Letters to Presidents of Eritrea and of Yemen", UN press release SG/SM/6033, 5 August 1996, vailable online at http://www.un.org/news/Press/docs/1996/19960815. sgsm6033.html (accessed 27 September 2007).
185. UN press briefing, 19 August 1996, available online at http://www.un.org/News/briefings/docs/1996/19960819.dbaug19.html (accessed 9 September 2007).
186. This account is based on Jack Christofides, "How Good Offices Changed the Nature of the Border Dispute Between Nigeria and Cameroon", in Conflict Prevention in Practice: Essays in Honour of James Sutterlin, ed. B. G. Ramcharan (Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 2006), 211-218.
187. Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening), International Court of Justice no. 94 (10 October 2002).
188. "At Secretary-General's Invitation, Presidents of Cameroon, Nigeria, Meet in Paris to Discuss Bakassi Peninsula, Other Issues", UN press release SG/SM/8368, AFR/476, 6 September 2002.
189. A summary of the judgment is contained in "Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening)", ICJ press release 2002/26, 10 October 2002.
190. "Secretary-General Calls on Cameroon, Nigeria to Respect International Court of Justice's Judgment on Border Dispute", UN press release SG/SM/8429, 11 October 2002, available online at http://www.unis. unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2002/sgsm8429.html (accessed 14 September 2007).
191. "Statement by Secretary-General Kofi Annan Following His Geneva Meeting with Presidents of Cameroon, Nigeria", UN press release SG/SM/8495, 18 November 2002, available online at http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/ pressrels/2002/sgsm8495.html (accessed 14 September 2007)
192. Letter Dated 17 March 2004 from the Secretary-General to the President of the Security Council (Cameroon-Nigeria Mixed Commission) (Security Council document S/2004/298), 16 April 2004.
193. See United Nations Office for West Africa, Dakar, Mixed Commission on Cameroon-Nigeria, Final Communiqué of the First Meeting, Yaoundé, 1-2 December 2002.
194. United Nations Office for West Africa, Dakar, Mixed Commission on Cameroon-Nigeria, Final Communiqué of the Third Special Meeting, Abuja, 12 July 2003.
195. United Nations Office for West Africa, Dakar, Mixed Commission on Cameroon-Nigeria, Final Communiqué, Eleventh Meeting, Yaoundé, 18-19 August 2004.
196. "Transcript of Press Conference with UN Secretary-General and Presidents of Cameroon, Nigeria, Held at Palais Des Nations, Geneva, 31 January", UN press release SG/SM/9143/Rev. 1, 5 February 2004.
197. Andrew Cordier and Wilder Foote, eds., Public Papers of the Secretaries-General of the United Nations, vol. 5, Dag Hammarskjöld, 1960-1961 (New York: Columbia University Press), 461.
198. The reports of the Independent Inquiry Committee into the United Nations Oilfor-Food Programme can be found online at http://www.iic-offp.org/documents. htm (accessed 9 September 2007).
199. See also Jeffrey A. Meyer and Mark G. Califano, Good Intentions Corrupted: The Oil-for-Food Scandal and the Threat to the U. N. (New York: Public Affairs, 2006).
200. United Nations Staff Union, "Resolution Adopted by the Emergency General Meeting of New York Staff", Bulletin of the United Nations Staff Union, 13 March 2006, available online at http://www.unstaff.org
201. See, for example, "In a Shift, Annan to Fill Out a U. N. Form Disclosing His Finances", New York Times, 16 September 2006. The Secretary-General ended his term amid such issues, which did not promote public trust.
202. Iain Guest, a seasoned observer of the commission, found this "bizarre" for a Secretary-General. Iain Guest, "Take a Seat and Take Your Lumps, America: Human Rights Council I", International Herald Tribune, 23 March 2006, 4.
203. Schlesinger has written that even as President Kennedy pursued bilateral negotiations, "he prepared to enlist the United Nations in fallback plans in case bilateral negotiations faltered." Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., "Foreword", in Robert Kennedy, Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1999) 12.
204. Richard Neustadt and Graham Allison have noted that the issue in the missile crisis was one of diplomacy as well of defense. Richard E. Neustadt and Graham T. Allison, "Afterword", in Robert Kennedy, Thirteen Days, 135.
205. Robert Kennedy, Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 54.
206. U Thant, View from the UN: Memoirs of U Thant (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1978), 31.
207. Kennedy, Thirteen Days, 169.
208. "Resolution of Council of Organization of American States, Meeting as the Provisional Organ of Consultation on October 23, 1962", U. S. Department of State Bulletin 722(1962):47, available online at http://home.att.net/~slomansonb/CubanMissile.html (accessed 9 September 2007).
209. The OAS resolution was transmitted to the Security Council and published in Letter from the Secretary General of the OAS to the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/5193), 25 October 1962.
210. See Ramses Nassif, U Thant in New York, 1961-1971: A Portrait of the Third UN Secretary-General (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988), 37.
211. Dino Brugioni, Eyeball to Eyeball: The Inside Story of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: Random House, 1990), 502.
212. Kennedy, Thirteen Days, 153.
213. U Thant, View from the UN, 161-162.
214. "Procès Verbaux", UN Security Council document S/PV.1025, 25 October 1962, para. 92.
215. "Procès Verbaux", Security Council document S/PV.1024, 24 October 1962, para. 111.
216. Thant, View from the UN, 163 and part III, appendices A-E.
217. John Bartlow Martin, Adlai Stevenson and the World (Garden City, N. Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1978), 730.
218. Thant, View from the UN, 166.
219. Martin, Adlai Stevenson and the World, 730.
220. Thant, View from the UN, 167.
221. Barbara Leaming, Jack Kennedy: The Education of a Statesman (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 409.
222. Of the Cuban missile crisis meetings, the author states, "my accounts of the meetings and quotations from participants during the Cuban crisis between August 1962 and November 1962 are based on the taped transcripts printed in The Presidential Recordings John F. Kennedy: The Great Crises, vol. 1, Timothy Naftali, ed., vol. 2, Timothy Naftali and Philip Zelikow, eds., and vol. 3, Philip Zelikow and Ernest May, eds. (New York: Norton and Company, 2001), plus the accounts by notetakers present at the meetings contained in the documents in FRUS 10 and 11" (484). For the quotes involving Ball, the author cites transcripts of telephone calls between JFK and Ball, 24 October 1962, FRUS, 11. In his memoirs, Andrei Gromyko discusses the Cuban missile crisis briefly and declares the outcome a victory for the Soviet Union. He does not refer to the role of U Thant.
223. See Andrei Gromyko, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1989), 179-180.
224. V. Zubok and C. Pleshakov, who are conversant with the archives of the Soviet Union, also do not discuss U Thant's role in their book, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996).
225. Martin, Adlai Stevenson and the World, 731.
226. Adlai Stevenson, note to U Thant, 25 October 1962, Box S-0872, Papers of UN Secretary-General U Thant (1961-1971), United Nations Archives and Records Centre, New York. Theodore Sorensen, apparently referring to this intervention of Stevenson, wrote: "A second U Thant proposal, negotiated through Stevenson urging both sides to avoid unnecessary contact during the next few days, was more acceptable⋯ [to President Kennedy]."
227. See Theodore C. Sorensen, Kennedy (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 710.
228. See Department of State to the Mission of the United States, telegram 1105, 26 October 1962, available online at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/ diplomacy/forrel/cuba/cuba083.htm (accessed 4 October 2007). This and subsequent citations to telegrams in this chapter are part of "Cuban Missile Crisis: 1961 [sic; 1962]", a component of the Yale Law School's Avalon Project of document collections in U. S. diplomatic history.
229. Mission to the United Nations to the U. S. Department of State, telegram 1484, 26 October 1962, available online at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/ diplomacy/forrel/cuba/cuba086.htm.
230. The mission to the United Nations had earlier reported on the previous conversation at 11:30 AM in telegram 1479 from New York, transmitted at 4 PM. Since Stevenson was still in Washington, Yost and Plimpton had represented the U. S. side. At the earlier meeting, the U. S. side had made the same points as at the second meeting. See the Avalon Project's annotation 1 of Mission to the United Nations to the U. S. Department of State, telegram 1484, 26 October 1962, at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/forrel/cuba/cuba086.htm.
231. Mission of the United States to the United Nations to U. S. Department of
232. Adlai Stevenson to U Thant, 27 October 1962, Box S-0872, Papers of UN Secretary-General U Thant (1961-1971), United Nations Archives and Records Centre, New York.
233. See Laurence Chang and Peter Kornbluh, eds., The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962: A National Security Archive Documents Reader (New York: The New Press, 1992, 1998), 93-94.
234. Thant, View from the UN, 169. In contrast, British prime minister Harold Macmillan's initial reaction to U Thant's intercession was bluntly negative. He told President Kennedy after U Thant's first appeal, "I think that's rather tiresome of him because it looks sensible and yet its very bad!" This remark was made in a telephone conversation between Kennedy and Macmillan on 24 October 1962 at 5:00 PM. See Ernest May and Philip Zelikow, eds., The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1997), 387. U Thant had been provided with a transcript of the relevant parts of this conversation, including the above remark of Macmillan. A carbon copy of parts of the minutes of the conversation are among U Thant's papers at the United Nations Archives and Records Centre. Arthur Schlesinger wrote of U Thant's first appeal: "U Thant made an unexpected intervention⋯ but from our point of view it equated aggression and response, said nothing about the missiles already in Cuba, permitted work to go forward on the sites and contained no provisions for verification. "
235. See Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002), 820.
236. On the visit to Cuba, see Thant, View from the UN;
237. and Ramses Nassif, U Thant in New York: Portrait of the Third UN Secretary-General, 1961-71 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988). In Nassif's assessment, "U Thant's greatest achievement in his ten-year tenure was his intervention in the Cuban missile crisis of October 1962, when the world came close to a nuclear holocaust" (25).
238. "Procès Verbaux", Security Council document S/PV.1025, paras. 91-94.
239. Thant, View from the UN, 194.
240. See Connie Peck, "Special Representatives of the Secretary-General", in The UN Security Council, ed. David Malone (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 322-339.
241. See Richard Miller, Dag Hammarskjöld and Crisis Diplomacy (New York: Oceana Publications, 1961), 326-327.
242. Vratislav Pechota, The Quiet Approach: A Study of the Good Offices Exercised by United Nations Secretary-General in the Cause of Peace (Geneva: UNITAR, 1972), 12.
243. Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah, Burundi on the Brink 1993-1995: A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy (Washington, D. C.: United States Institute for Peace Press, 2000).
244. Report of the Secretary General Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 721 (1991) (Security Council document S/2380), 11 December 1991, Annex III: "Concept for a United Nations Peace-keeping Operation in Yugoslavia, as discussed with Yugoslav leaders by the Honourable Cyrus R. Vance, Personal Envoy of the Secretary General and Marrack Goulding, Under-Secretary-General for Special Political Affairs, November/December 1991."
245. Algeria: Report of Eminent Panel, July-August 1998, 10 September 1998, available online at http://www.un.org/NewLinks/dpi2007/ (accessed 9 September 2007).
246. "Enhancing the United Nations Effectiveness in Peace and Security: A Report Submitted to the Secretary-General of the United Nations by Under-Secretary-General Marrack Goulding", New York, 30 June 1997, paras. 5.12-5.15. The author was provided a copy of the report in his capacity as a political director in the Department of Political Affairs, where he served under Goulding and his successor, Kieran Prendergast.
247. Marrack Goulding, "Practical Measures to Enhance the United Nations' Effectiveness in the Field of Peace and Security: Report Submitted to the Secretary-General of the United Nations", New York, 30 June 1997, 26-27.
248. Report of the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility (New York: United Nations, 2004).
249. Kofi Annan, In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All (New York: UN, 2005).
250. The French text of the statement is taken from UNOWA's Web site, www.un.org/unowa. The short English translations are by the author. The Security Council Official Records ([UN document PV 5509], 9 August 2006), carries a more detailed version of the presentation and mentioned other threats, such as the development of piracy on the high seas.
251. Letter Dated 26 November 2001 from the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/2001/1128), 29 November 2001;
252. Letter Dated 11 December 2004 from the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/2005/16), 11 January 2005.
253. Letter Dated 11 December 2004 from the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council.
254. Paul Collier, "Development and Conflict", Centre for the Study of African Economics, Department of Economics, Oxford University, 1 October 2004, 1, available at http://www.un.org/esa/documents/Development.and. Conflict2.pdf.
255. "The UN Office for West Africa", 1, available online at www.un.org/unowa/unowa/bckgrdnew.pdf (accessed 9 September 2007).
256. Letter Dated 3 August 2006 from the Permanent Representative of Ghana to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary General (Security Council document S/2006/610), 3 August 2006, 4-5.
257. Security Council Official Records, 61st Year, 5509th Meeting, 9 August 2006, 7.
258. "ECOWAS-EU-UNOWA Framework of Action for Peace and Security", 3, available online at http://www.un.org/unowa/unowa/studies/eu-ecowas-unowa.pdf (accessed 27 September 2007).
259. Special Representative Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah, interview with author, New York, 20 September 2006.
260. Youth Unemployment and Regional Insecurity in West Africa, UNOWA issue papers, second edition, August 2006, available at http://www.un.org/unowa/unowa/ studies/yunemp-v2-en.pdf.
261. Life after State House: Addressing Unconstitutional Changes in West Africa, UNOWA issue papers, March 2006, available at http://www.un.org/unowa/ unowa/studies/lash-en.pdf.
262. Security Council Official Records, 61st Year, 5509th Meeting, 9 August 2006 (Resumption 1), 24.
263. Plenary Debate, General Assembly Official Records, 8th Plenary Meeting, 16 September 2005, A/60/PV.8, 18.
264. Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization (General Assembly document A/61/1), 16 August 2006, para. 59.
265. Statement by the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/PRST/2006/38), 9 August 2006.
266. Lester Pearson, Peace in the Family of Man (Toronto: Oxford, 1957).
267. Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse, Hugh Miall, and Gareth Schott, Contemporary Conflict Resolution, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005), 331.
268. "The Four Faces of Peace", The Honourable Lester Bowles Pearson's Acceptance Speech upon Presentation of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957, available online at http://www.unac.org/en/link-learn/canada/pearson/ speechnobel.asp (accessed 9 September 2007).
269. General Assembly, "Introduction to the Report of the Secretary General on the Work of the Organization, 16 June 1959-15 June 1960", General Assembly Official Records, 1960, 15th Session, Supplement No. 1A (A4390/Add.1), 5-7.
270. Paul Collier, "Development and Conflict", Centre for the Study of African Economics, Department of Economics, Oxford University, 1 October 2004, 7-10.
271. Report of the Secretary-General on the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (Security Council document S/24923), 9 December 1992.
272. Security Council resolution 795, 11 December 1992, established the preventive deployment in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
273. Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Security Council resolution 795 (1992) (Security Council document S/26099), 13 July 1993.
274. Background paper submitted by the FYROM Command to Brainstorming Exercise on the Future of UNPROFOR, Zagreb-Mokrice, 15-17 February 1994. Paper in the possession of the author, who participated in the exercise.
275. Henryk Sokalski, An Ounce of Prevention: Macedonia and the UN Experience in Preventive Diplomacy (Washington, D. C.: United States Institute for Peace, 2003), 108.
276. See also Abiodun Williams, Preventing War: The UN and Macedonia (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000).
277. Government of The Netherlands, "A UN Rapid Deployment Brigade: A Preliminary Study", revised version, April 1995.
278. See Howard Peter Langille, "Conflict Prevention: Options for Rapid Deployment and UN Standing Forces", in Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution, ed. Tom Woodhouse and Oliver Ramsbotham, 219-253 (London: Frank Cass, 2000).
279. Government of Canada, Towards a Rapid Reaction Capability for the United Nations (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade and Department of National Defence, 1995).
280. Langille, "Conflict Prevention: Options for Rapid Deployment and UN Standing Forces", 157-158.
281. Report of the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility: Report of the Secretary-General's High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change (New York: United Nations, 2004), 59; see also 86.
282. This account is based on Angela King, "Internal Conflict Prevention: The UN Observer Mission to South Africa (UNOMSA) 1992", in Conflict Prevention in Practice, ed. Bertrand G. Ramcharan (Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005), 151-156.
283. See Frances Stewart, The Root Causes of Conflict: Some Conclusions, Working Paper no. 18, Queen Elizabeth House Working Paper Series, Oxford University, June 1998.
284. "Ad Hoc Group to Study Problems of East-West Trade in Implementation of Commission Resolution 9 (XVI)", E/ECE resolution 4 (XVIII), 4 May 1963.
285. "Further Work of the Ad Hoc Group to Study Problems of East-West Trade in Implementation of Commission Resolution 9 (XVI)", E/ECE/553/Add.3, 23 March 1965.
286. "Work of the Committee on the Development of Trade", E/ECE/resolution 2 (XXII), 28 April 1967, 1.
287. I have reviewed the historic contribution of the ECE as a forum of East-West confidence-building measures on economic and social issues in Bertrand G. Ramcharan, "Equality and Discrimination in International Economic Law (VIII): The United Nations Regional Economic Commissions", The Yearbook of World Affairs 1978 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1978), 268-285.
288. See Yves Berthelot and Paul Rayment, "The ECE: A Bridge between East and West", in Unity and Diversity in Development Ideas: Perspectives from the UN Regional Commissions, ed. Yves Berthelot (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 64.
289. See Bertrand G. Ramcharan, The International Law and Practice of Early Warning and Preventive Diplomacy: The Emerging Global Watch (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 1991), 143-144.
290. "International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction", General Assembly resolution 44/236, 22 December 1989, available online at http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/44/a44r236.htm (accessed 16 September 2007).
291. See Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, World Economic Survey 1989: Current Trends and Policies in the World Economy (New York: United Nations, 1989), available at http://www.un.org/esa/policy/wess/ WESS%20since%201948/world%20economic%20survey%201989.pdf.
292. "Proposals to Improve the Work of the United Nations in the Early Identification, Analysis and Forecasting of World Economic Developments", ECOSOC document E/1990/80, 6 June 1990.
293. "United Nations Millennium Declaration", General Assembly resolution 55/2, 8 September 2000.
294. "Proposals to Improve the Work of the United Nations in the Early Identification, Analysis and Forecasting of World Economic Developments", para. 31.
295. Substantive Issues Arising in the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Poverty and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Statement Adopted by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights on 4 May 2001 (ECOSOC document E/C.12/2001/10), 10 May 2001, para. 11.
296. See Bertrand G. Ramcharan, Humanitarian Good Offices in International Law (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983).
297. See Luise Druke, Preventive Action for Refugee Producing Situations (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1989).
298. See Bertrand G. Ramcharan, "Early Warning at the United Nations: The First Experiment", International Journal of Refugee Law 1, no. 3(1989):379-386.
299. See Thomas G. Weiss and David A. Korn, Internal Displacement: Conceptualization and Its Consequences (London: Routledge, 2006).
300. See David Forsythe, Humanitarian Politics: The International Committee of the Red Cross (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977).
301. "Study and Investigation of Situations which Reveal a Consistent Pattern of Violations of Human Rights", Commission on Human Rights resolution 8 (XXIII), 16 March 1967.
302. See generally B. G. Ramcharan, The Concept and Present Status of the International Protection of Human Rights: Forty Years after the Universal Declaration (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1989).
303. See Bertrand G. Ramcharan, A United Nations High Commissioner in Defence of Human Rights (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 2004).
304. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (General Assembly document A/48/18), 15 September 1993, annex I, available online at http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/DOC. NSF/8e9c603f486cdf83802566f8003870e7/ 9d43bba5cf6507718025 655d003f980e?OpenDocument#A%2F48%2F18E (accessed 14 September 2007).
305. Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, annex III, Prevention of Racial Discrimination, including Early Warning and Urgent Procedures: Working Paper adopted by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 126-130, quote on 127.
306. Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and Followup to the World Conference on Human Rights (ECOSOC document E/CN.4/12), 28 December 1999.
307. Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (General Assembly document A/61/36), 2006, para. 3.
308. Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (General Assembly document A/61/36), 2006, para. 75.
309. Felix Schnyder, "Les Aspects juridiques actuels du Problème des réfugiés", Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de la Haye 114(1965-1):335-450.
310. Saddrudin Aga Khan, "Legal Problems Relating to Refugees and Displaced Persons", Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de la Haye 149(1976-I):347.
311. "UN Asks Hong Kong to Delay Deportations", New York Times, 17 December 1989.
312. Interview with François Fouinat, former chef de cabinet to High Commissioner Sadako Ogata, Geneva, 6 December 2006.
313. See Weiss and Korn, Internal Displacement: Conceptualization and its Consequences.
314. For more about the Handyside and Klaas cases, see Clare Ovey, Robin C. A. White, and Francis Geoffrey Jacobs, Jacobs and White: The European Convention on Human Rights, 4th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
315. See Martin Scheinin et al., "The Case Law of the Human Rights Committee", Turku/Abo, Institute for Human Rights, Abo Akademi University, 2003, 400.
316. Louis Henkin, "Democracy and Liberty as Human Rights", in Towards Implementing Universal Human Rights: Festchrift for the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Human Rights Committee, ed. Nisuke Ando (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2004), 173-180.
317. Louis Henkin, "Democracy and Liberty as Human Rights", in Commemorative Volume on the Occasion of the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Human Rights Committee, ed. Nisuko Ando (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff), 173-180, quote on 176.
318. Professor Larry Diamond has also asserted the universal right to democratic governance in Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in the 1990s: Actors and Instruments, Issues and Imperatives: A Report to the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict (New York: The Commission, 1995), 60-68.
319. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Democratization (New York: United Nations, 1996).
320. "The Situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina", Security Council resolution 1423(2002), 12 July 2002.
321. Gregory H. Fox, "Democratization", in The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century, ed. David Malone (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004), 69-84, esp. 69.
322. Kevin Cahill, ed., Preventive Diplomacy (New York: Basic Books, 1996), vii.
323. An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking, and Peace-Keeping: Report of the Secretary-General (Security Council document S/24111-A/47/277), 17 June 1992, para. 19.
324. Progress Report on the Prevention of Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General (General Assembly document A/60/891), 18 July 2006, paras. 46-47.
325. "The Manila Declaration of 1988, Issued on 6 June 1988 at the Conclusion of the International Conference of Newly Restored Democracies, Held at Manila, from 3 to 6 June 1988", General Assembly document A/43/538, 16 August 1988, Annex, 3-4, available online at http://www.icnrd6.com/previous.php (accessed 14 September 2007);
326. "Doha Declaration: Building Capacity for Democracy, Peace and Social Progress", 31 October 2006, available online at http://www.icnrd6.com/ outcome.php (accessed 14 September 2007).
327. George H. W. Bush, "Address to the United Nations", 1 October 1990, available online at http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/ digitalarchive/speeches/spe-1990-1001-bush (accessed 14 September 2007).
328. See the Web site of the United Nations Electoral Assistance Division, available at http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/ead/overview.html (accessed 28 September 2007).
329. Suddrudin Aga Khan, Study on Human Rights and Mass Exoduses, ECOSOC document E/CN.4/1503, 11 March 1981.
330. See also Refugees. Dynamics of Displacement. A Report for the Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues (London, Zed Books, 1986), 137.
331. See Ramcharan, "Early Warning at the United Nations", 379-386.
332. See International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty, The Responsibility to Protect (Ottawa: The International Development Research Center, 2001).
333. See Bertrand G. Ramcharan, ed., The Protection Role of National Human Rights Institutions (Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005).
334. General Assembly resolution 60/1, 24 October 2005.
335. General Assembly resolution 96(1), 11 December 1946.
336. See Samantha Power, Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Perennial, 2002).
337. See also David Hamburg, No More Killing Fields: Preventing Deadly Conflict (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002);
338. and David and Beatrix Hamburg, Learning to Live Together: Preventing Hatred and Violence in Child and Adolescent Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
339. See the study on the question of genocide by Mr. Nicodeme Ruhashyankiko, special rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and the Protection of Minorities, Study on the Question of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (ECOSOC document E/CN.4/Sub.2/416), 4 July 1978;
340. see also Mr. B. Whitaker, special rapporteur, Study on the Question of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (ECOSOC document E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6), 16 July 1985.
341. See Bertrand G. Ramcharan, Humanitarian Good Offices in International Law (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983).
342. "Genocide Is a Threat to Peace Requiring Strong, United Action, Secretary-General Tells Stockholm International Forum", UN press release SG/SM/9126, 26 January 2004, available online at http://www.un.org/News/Press/ docs/2004/SGsm9126.doc.htm (accessed 28 September 2007).
343. "UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan's Plan to Prevent Genocide", UN press release SG/SM/9197, 7 April 2004, available online at http://www.preventgenocide.org/prevent/UNdocs/ KofiAnnansActionPlantoPreventGenocide7Apr2004.htm (accessed 14 September 2007).
344. Letter dated 12 July 2004 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/2004/567), 13 July 2004, available online at http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/prev-genocide/ appointment.pdf.
345. "On the Role of the Security Council in the Prevention of Armed Conflicts", Security Council resolution 1366(2001), 30 August 2001.
346. See Letter Dated 12 July 2004 from the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/2004/567), 13 July 2004.
347. Report of the Secretary-General on the Implementation of the Five Point Action Plan and the Activities of the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide (ECOSOC document E/CN.4/2006/84), 9 March 2006.
348. Report of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and Follow-Up to the World Conference on Human Rights. Situation of Human Rights in the Darfur Region of the Sudan (ECOSOC document E/CN.4/2005/3), 7 May 2004.
349. Statement by the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/PRST/2004/18), 26 May 2004.
350. "U. S. Official: Sudan Darfur Deaths May Reach 300, 000", Associated Press, 4 October 2004;
351. "Darfur Death Toll May be 300, 000, Say UK lawmakers", Reuters, 30 March 2005, available online at http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/ L30582172.htm (accessed 14 September 2007).
352. Interview of members of the Advisory Committee of the Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide by the author, 2 February 2007, New York.
353. "UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan's Plan to Prevent Genocide."
354. Kofi Annan, Progress Report on the Prevention of Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General (General Assembly document A/60/891), 18 July 2006.
355. Strobe Talbott and Nayan Chanda, eds., The Age of Terror: America and the World after September 11 (New York: Basic Books, 2001).
356. See Allison, Nuclear Terrorism.
357. See also Mohamed Elbaradei and Jonas Gahr Store, "How the World Can Combat Nuclear Terrorism", Financial Times, 15 April 2006, 13.
358. Kofi Annan, "A Global Strategy for Fighting Terrorism", Keynote Address to the Closing Plenary of the International Summit on Democracy, Terrorism and Security, 10 March 2005, available online at http://summit. clubmadrid.org/keynotes/a-globalstrategy-for-fighting-terrorism.html ranscripcion (accessed 14 September 2007).
359. "International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism", 14 September 2005, 4, available at http://untreaty.un.org/ English/Terrorism/English-18-15.pdf.
360. "Threats to International Peace and Security Caused by Terrorist Acts", Security Council resolution 1377(2001), 12 November 2001, 3.
361. "Threats to International Peace and Security (Security Council Summit 2005)", Security Council resolution 1624, 14 September 2005.
362. Annan, "A Global Strategy for Fighting Terrorism."
363. "Coping with Non-Traditional Security Threats", Concept Paper, Geneva Centre for Security Policy, December 2006.
364. Vladimir A. Orlav, "Illicit Nuclear Trafficking and the New Agenda", IAEA Bulletin 46, no. 1(June 2004):55.
365. Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization (General Assembly document A/60/1), 8 August 2005, 13, available online at http://www.un.org/documents/secretariat.htm (accessed 14 September 2007).
366. See International Peace Academy and the Organization of African Unity, Report of the Cairo Consultation: The OAU Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution (New York: IPA, 1994), 19.
367. Salim A. Salim, "The Priorities and Challenges of the OAU on the Eve of the New Millenium: Resolving Conflicts", OAU Conflict Management Bulletin 1, no. 5(August-September 1996):4-5.
368. International Peace Academy and the Organization of African Unity, Report of the Cairo Consultation.
369. Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, adopted by the 1st Ordinary Session of the Assembly of the African Union, Durban, 9 July 2002, 18, available online at www.africa-union.org/root/au/organs/psc/Protocol-peace%20and%20security.pdf (accessed 14 September 2007).
370. On ASEAN as a security community, see Amitav Acharya, Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia: ASEAN and the Problem of Regional Order (London: Routledge, 2001);
371. and Ralf Emmers, Cooperative Security and the Balance of Power in ASEAN and the ARF (London: Routledge, 2003).
372. "Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia", 24 February 1976, available at http://www.aseansec.org/1217.htm.
373. ASEAN Declaration on the South China Sea (1992), Manila, Philippines, 22 July 1992, available online at http://www.aseansec.org/5233.htm (accessed 14 September 2007).
374. ASEAN Regional Forum, "Concept and Principles of Preventive Diplomacy", available online at http://www.aseanregionalforum.org/ PublicLibrary/TermsofReferencesandConceptPapers/tabid/89/Default.aspx (accessed 2 October 2007).
375. A list of ARF Track I and Track II activities are available online at http://www.aseanregionalforum.org/PublicLibrary/ARFActivities/tabid/92/Default. aspx.
376. Dato M. Hassan, director general, Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ISIS), Malaysia, "Regional Mechanisms for Conflict Prevention", presentation at the Seminar on Conflict Prevention, Manila, 20-21 February 2002.
377. Medardo C. Abad, Jr., "Enhancing ASEAN-UN Cooperation in Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding in the 21st Century", presentation at the Seminar on Conflict Prevention, Manila, 20-21 February 2002.
378. See Robin Ramcharan, Southeast Asian Security: Pitfalls of the Regional Approach, PSIS Occasional Paper no. 1, Geneva, Programme for Strategic and International Studies, 1998.
379. John Garofano, "Power, Institutions, and the ASEAN Regional Forum: A Security Community for Asia?" Asian Survey 42, no. 3(2002):517.
380. State Council of the People's Republic of China, White Paper: Arms Control and Disarmament, November 1995.
381. See also R. Manning, R. Montaperto, and B. Roberts, China, Nuclear Weapons and Arms Control: A Preliminary Assessment (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2000).
382. "Concept and Principles of Preventive Diplomacy", reproduced in Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies, A New Agenda for the ASEAN Regional Forum, Monograph no. 4 (Singapore: Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies, 2002), 88-93. The five principles of cooperation, also known as the Panchsheel, are mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual nonaggression, mutual noninterference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. The Panchsheel was put forward by Premier Zhou Enlai in talks with the Indian government in Beijing from December 1953 to April 1954 concerning Tibet. In June 1954, the Five Principles were included in the joint communiqué issued by Premier Zhou Enlai and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Since then the Panchsheel's principles have been adopted in other international documents as norms for relations between countries.
383. See generally the Wikipedia entry on "Principles of Peaceful Coexistence", available online at http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Five- Principles-of-Peaceful-Coexistence.
384. Bandar Seri Begawan, "Chair's Statement", Ninth Meeting of the ASEAN Regional Forum, 31 July 2002. Available at www.aseansec.org/12003.htm.
385. "Enhanced Role of the ARF Chair", reproduced in Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies, A New Agenda for the ASEAN Regional Forum, 94-97.
386. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development is committed to assisting its member states (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, and Uganda). The IGAD mission is to assist and complement the efforts of member states to achieve, through increased cooperation, food security and environmental protection; promotion and maintenance of peace, security, and humanitarian affairs; and economic cooperation and integration. For more information, see http://www.igad.org/about/mission.html.
387. L. Ronald Scheman and John W. Ford, "The Organization of American States as Mediator", in International Mediation in Theory and Practice, ed. Saadia Touval and I. William Zartman (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1985), 197-232.
388. See Letter Dated 12 February 2001 from the Secretary-General to the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/2001/138), 14 February 2001, annex I.
389. See "Fifth High-level Meeting between UN and Regional Organizations Concludes Following Two-Day Discussion of Main Challenges to International Peace and Security", the statement issued by Secretary-General Kofi Annan at the conclusion of the meeting, UN press release SG/2084, 30 July 2003, available online at http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/sg2084.doc.htm (accessed 14 September 2007).
390. See Statement by the President of the Security Council (Security Council document S/PRST/2004/27), 20 July 2004.
391. General Assembly Official Records, 59th Session, Supplement No. 2, General Assembly document A/59/2, 20 August 2004, 17.