Managing the nuclear fuel cycle: Policy implications of expanding global access to nuclear power

Managing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Policy Implications of Expanding Global Access to Nuclear Power

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-77

  Nikitin, Mary Beth Dunham ^a   Parillo, Jill Marie ^a   Squassoni, Sharon ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84895205613     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (89)

1. CRS Report RS22542, Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing: U.S. Policy Development, by Anthony Andrews.
2. U.S. Department of Energy, "The Global Nuclear Energy Partnership," Factsheet 06-GA50506-01 (also available at [http://www.gnep.energy.gov]).
3. CRS Report RS21592, Iran's Nuclear Program: Recent Developments, by Sharon Squassoni.
4. "Security Council, in Presidential Statement, Underlines Importance of Iran's ReEstablishing Full, Sustained Suspension of Uranium Enrichment Activities," March 29, 2006, at [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8679.doc.htm], and UN Security Council Resolution 1737 (2006) [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2006/sc8928.doc. htm].
5. Most observers point to the obligation in Article IV that such pursuit must be consistent with a state's obligations under Articles II and II of the treaty. Article II refers to a state's obligation to foreswear nuclear weapons development and Article III refers to a state's obligation to undertake safeguards "for the exclusive purpose of verification of the fulfillment of its obligations" under the treaty.
6. See timeline of fuel cycle proposals, available at [http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/FuelCycle/key_events.shtm l].
7. This section was prepared by Mark Holt, Specialist in Energy Policy, and Anthony Andrews, Specialist in Energy Policy, in the Resources, Science, and Industry Division, Congressional Research Service.
8. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2006, p. 349.
9. Energy Information Administration, at [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/hist/wtotworldw. htm].
10. EIA [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/gastrade.html].
11. World Energy Outlook, op. cit., pp. 139, 141.
12. DOE, FY 2008 Congressional Budget, vol. 3, p. 577.
13. EIA [http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epat2p4.html].
14. World Energy Outlook, op. cit., p. 140.
15. 15 CRS Report RL33442, Nuclear Power: Outlook for New U.S. Reactors, by Larry Parker and Mark Holt.
16. Interdisciplinary MIT Study, The Future of Nuclear Power, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2003, p. 79.
17. "World Nuclear Generation Sets Record in 2006," Nucleonics Week, February 15, 2007, p. 1; Nuclear Engineering International, November 2005, p. 37.
18. Uranium Information Centre, The Economics of Nuclear Power, Briefing Paper 8, January 2006, p. 3.
19. Nucleonics Week, "U.S. Utility Operating Costs, 2005," September 14, 2006, p. 7.
20. CRS Report RL33442, op. cit.
21. Office of Technology Assessment, Nuclear Power in an Age of Uncertainty, OTA-E-216, February 1984, p. 59.
22. Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen and Philip Smith, Nuclear Energy, the Energy Balance, July 31, 2005, Chapter 3, p. 2.
23. Numerous published sources, available from the author.
24. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2006, p. 347.
25. World Nuclear Association Reactor Database, at [http://www.worldnuclear. org/reference/reactorsdb_index.php].
26. Nucleonics Week, April 19, 2007; BBC Monitoring, April 12, 2007; Dow Jones, April 14, 2007; Associated Press, April 15, 2007; All Africa Global Media, May 25, 2007; XFN Asia, June 12, 2007; New York Times, April 16, 2007.
27. IAEA, Country Nuclear Fuel Cycle Profiles, 2nd ed., 2005.
28. U.S. DOE Energy Information Administration, Uranium Marketing Annual Report, May 16, 2007, at [http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/umar/umar.html].
29. U.S. DOE, Report on the Effect of the Low-Enriched Uranium Delivered Under the HEU Agreement Between the United States and the Government of the Russian Federation has on the Domestic Uranium Mining, Conversion, and Enrichment Industries and the Operation of the Gaseous Diffusion Plant, December 31, 2004.
30. Note: Metric tons is the unit of measurement for uranium fuel. One metric ton is approximately 2,200 pounds. International Atomic Energy Agency, Management of high enriched uranium for peaceful purposes: Status and trends (IAEA-TECDOC-1452), June 2005.
31. World Nuclear Fuel Market website, at [http://www.wnfm.com/public/default.htm].
32. Information on the Uranium Price Information System is available through NAC International at (678) 328-1211 or e-mail at gleamon@nacintl.com.
33. Nine U.S. companies, 10 non-U.S. companies, 12 utilities, four producers, two traders, and one supplier.
34. New York Mercantile Exchange, at [http://www.nymex.com/UX_pre_ agree.aspx].
35. CME Globex is a global electronic trading platform for trading futures products. NYMEX ClearPort Clearing provides traders an interface where transactions are posted, margin requirements are calculated, and the transactions are processed by the clearinghouse.
36. Nuclear Energy Agency, Forty Years of Uranium Resources, Production and Demand in Perspective, 2006, pp. 10-11.
37. World Nuclear Association, Uranium Markets, March 2007, at [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf22.html].
38. Nuclear Energy Agency, op. cit., p. 13.
39. Ruthane Neely and Jeff Combs, "Diffusion Fades Away," Nuclear Engineering International, September 2006, p. 24.
40. Thomas L. Neff, The International Uranium Market, Ballinger Publishing Co., 1984.
41. USEC to Site American Centrifuge Plant in Piketon, Ohio-Technology Expected to Be World's Most Efficient for Enriching Nuclear Fuel, at [http://www.usec.com/v2001_02/Content/News/NewsTemplate.asp?page=/v2001_02/Content/News/NewsFiles/01-12-04.htm].
42. URENCO [http://www.urenco.com/fullArticle.aspx?m=1371].
43. URENCO [http://www.urenco.com/fullArticle.aspx?m=1371].
44. AREVA [http://www.areva-nc.com/servlet/ContentServer? Pagename =cogema_en%2F Page%2Fpage_site _prod_full_template&c= Page& cid=1039482707079].
45. [http://www.usec.com].
46. IAEA, Country Nuclear Fuel Cycle Profiles, 2nd ed.
47. Nuclear Engineering International, 2007 World Nuclear Industry Handbook, p. 207.
48. World Nuclear Association, Processing of Used Nuclear Fuel for Recycle, March 2007, at [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf69. html].
49. World Nuclear Association, Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX), November 2006, at [http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf29.html].
50. World Nuclear Association, Uranium Markets, March 2007.
51. Isotopes are atoms of the same chemical element but with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
52. The core of a breeder reactor is configured so that more fissile 239Pu is produced from 238U than the amount of fissile material initially loaded into the core that is consumed (235U or 239Pu). In a breeder, therefore, enough fissile material could be recovered through reprocessing to refuel the reactor and to provide fuel for additional breeders. The core of a fast reactor can also be configured to produce less 239Pu than fissile material consumed, if the primary goal is to eliminate 239Pu from spent fuel. In that case, much less 238U ultimately would be converted to 239Pu and therefore less total energy produced from a given amount of natural uranium.
53. This section was prepared by Mary Beth Nikitin (Analyst in WMD Nonproliferation), Sharon Squassoni (Specialist in National Defense), and Jill Parillo (Research Associate) in the Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division, and Anthony Andrews (Specialist in Energy Policy) in the Resources, Science, and Industry Division.
54. "President Announces New Measures to Counter the Threat of WMD," February 11, 2004, at [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/02/20040211-4.html].
55. See Paragraph 13 of the Heiligendamm Statement on Non-Proliferation, G8 Summit 2007, at [http://www.g-8.de/Content/EN/Artikel/__g8-summit/anlagen/heiligendamm-statement-on-nonproliferation, property=publicationFile.pdf].
56. "Towards a Safer World," at [http://f40.iaea.org/worldatom/Press/Statements/2003/ebTE20031016.shtml].
57. "Multilateral Approaches to the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Expert Group Report submitted to the Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency," February 22, 2005, (INFCIRC/640). Available at [http://www.iaea.org/Publications/ocuments/Infcircs/2005/infcirc640.pdf].
58. International Atomic Energy Agency, Possible New Framework for the Utilization of Nuclear Energy: Options for Assurance of Supply of Nuclear Fuel, June 2007.
59. Tariq Rauf, "Realizing Nuclear Fuel Assurances: Third Time's the Charm," Presentation to the Carnegie International Nonproliferation Conference, June 24, 2007, at [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/fuel_assurances_rauf.pdf].
60. "The Last Word: Sergei Kirienko," Newsweek, February 20, 2006 issue, at [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11299203/site/newsweek/].
61. "France: International partnership part of new enrichment business," Nuclear Fuel, September 24, 2007.
62. "Russia's Angarsk international enrichment center open for business," Nuclear Fuel, September 24, 2007.
63. "Communication received from the Resident Representative of the Russian Federation to the IAEA on the Establishment, Structure and Operation of the International Uranium Enrichment Centre," INFCIRC/708, June 8, 2007.
64. "IAEA eyes monitoring Russian uranium enrichment facilities," Kyodo World Service, October 10, 2007.
65. "Concept for a Multilateral Mechanism for Reliable Access to Nuclear Fuel," Proposal as sent to the IAEA from France, Germany, the Netherlands, Russia, Ireland, and the United States, May 31, 2006, IAEA GOV/INF/2006/10. Available at [http://wwwpub. iaea.org/MTCD/Meetings/PDFplus/2006/cn147_ConceptRA_NF.pdf].
66. Assistant Secretary of Energy Dennis Spurgeon, Remarks at an IAEA Special Event on "Assurances of Nuclear Supply and Nonproliferation," September 19, 2006. Available at [http://energy. gov/news/4173.htm].
67. "News Analysis: The Growing Nuclear Fuel-Cycle Debate," Arms Control Today, November 2006. Available at [http://www. armscontrol.org/act/2006_11/NAFuel.asp].
68. See CRS Report RL33016, U.S. Nuclear Cooperation With India: Issues for Congress, by Sharon Squassoni, for additional detail on the requirements contained in Section 123 of the Atomic Energy Act.
69. Nuclear Threat Initiative is a private organization founded in 2001 by Mr. Ted Turner and former Senator Sam Nunn. It is now classified as a 501(c)3 public charity.
70. New Framework for the Utilization of Nuclear Energy in the 21st Century: Assurances of Supply and Nonproliferation, IAEA Special Event, Speech by Sam Nunn, September 19, 2006, at [http://www.nti.org].
71. Nuclear Threat Initiative Commits $50 million to Create IAEA Nuclear Fuel Bank, International Atomic Energy Agency Press Release, September 19, 2006. Available at [http://www.nti.org/c_press/release_IAEA_Fuelbank_091906.pdf].
72. For more detailed treatment of these questions see, New Framework for the Utilization of Nuclear Energy in the 21st Century: Assurances of Supply and Nonproliferation, IAEA Special Event, Speech by Laura Holgate, September 19, 2006, at [http://www.nti.org].
73. See S.Rept. 110-151, Nuclear Safeguards and Supply Act of 2007.
74. Introduced February 7, 2007, by Representative Lantos; reported by House Committee on Foreign Affairs June 18, 2007 (H.Rept. 110-196); passed House under suspension of the rules by voice vote.
75. WNA's report is available at [http://www.worldnuclear. org/reference/pdf/security.pdf].
76. "Safe Enrichment for All," Handelsblatt newspaper, May 2, 2007, in English at [https://www.diplo.de/diplo/en/Infoservice/Presse/Interview/2007/07 0502-Handelsblatt. html].
77. INFCIRC/707, June 4, 2007.
78. DOE Global Nuclear Energy Partnership home page, at [http://www.gnep.energy.gov].
79. Richard Garwin, "R&D Priorities for GNEP," Testimony to House Science Committee, April 6, 2006.
80. Frank von Hippel, "GNEP and the U.S. Spent Fuel Problem," Briefing for Congressional Staff, March 10, 2006, at [http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/pdf/House Briefing10March06rev2.pdf];.
81. Frank von Hippel, "Managing Spent Fuel in the United States: The Illogic of Reprocessing," International Panel on Fissile Materials, January 2007, at [http://www.fissilematerials.org/ipfm/site_down/ipfmresearchreport 03.pdf].
82. "Remarks as Prepared for Delivery by U.S. Secretary of Energy Samuel W. Bodman," 2nd Global Nuclear Energy Partnership Ministerial Opening Session Vienna, Austria, September 16, 2007.
83. [http://www.gnep.energy.gov/pdfs/gnepSOP_091607.pdf].
84. The IAEA proposal is "Multilateral Approaches to the Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Expert Group Report Submitted to the Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency," INFCIRC/640, International Atomic Energy Agency, February 22, 2006, p. 18. Available at [http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/2005/infcirc6 40.pdf]. The Six-Country Concept is "Concept for a Multilateral Mechanism for Reliable Access to Nuclear Fuel," Proposal as sent to the IAEA from France, Germany, the Netherlands, Russia, Ireland, and the United States, May 31, 2006. Available at [http://wwwpub. iaea.org/MTCD/Meetings/PDFplus/2006/cn147_ConceptRA_N F.pdf].
85. For an analysis of these past proposals, see Lawrence Scheinman, "Equal Opportunity: Historical Challenges and Future Prospects of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle," Arms Control Today, May 2007.
86. See CRS Report RL33558, Nuclear Energy Policy, by Mark Holt.
87. See CRS Report RS22474, Banning Fissile Material Production for Nuclear Weapons: Prospects for a Treaty (FMCT), by Sharon Squassoni.
88. Daniel Horner, "India Agreement Complies With U.S. Law, State Department Official Says," Nucleonics Week, August 2, 2007, p. 1.
89. Text of Declaration on Nuclear Energy and Nonproliferation Joint Actions, July 3, 2007, at [http://moscow.usembassy.gov/bilateral/joint_statement.php?record_id=64]. Once the agreement is submitted to Congress, the Congress will have 60 days to consider. If no objections are made, then the agreement becomes law.