Global trade, local impacts: Lessons from California on health impacts and environmental justice concerns for residents living near freight rail yards

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 1914-1941

  Hricko, Andrea ^a   Rowland, Glovioell ^a   Eckel, Sandrah ^a   Logan, Angelo ^b   Taher, Maryam ^c   Wilson, John ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b East Yard Communities for Environmental Justice   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Air pollution; Diesel exhaust; Environmental health; Environmental justice; Exposure; Health disparities; International trade; Land use; Particulate matter; Race ethnicity; Rail

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION; CANCER; ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE; EXHAUST EMISSION; FREIGHT TRANSPORT; GLOBAL TRADE; HEALTH IMPACT; HEALTH RISK; LAND USE; PARTICULATE MATTER; POLLUTION EXPOSURE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RACE; RAILWAY TRANSPORT; RESIDENTIAL LOCATION;

ARTICLE; CANCER RISK; DEMOGRAPHY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EXHAUST GAS; GLOBAL CHANGE; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH DISPARITY; HEALTH HAZARD; HEALTH IMPACT ASSESSMENT; HUMAN; POPULATION RISK; PUBLIC HEALTH; RAILWAY; RISK ASSESSMENT; SOCIAL JUSTICE; UNITED STATES; CHEMICALLY INDUCED; COMMERCIAL PHENOMENA; ETHNIC GROUP; INCOME; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; NEOPLASM; PARTICULATE MATTER; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA;

CALIFORNIA; UNITED STATES;

EXHAUST GAS; PARTICULATE MATTER;

CALIFORNIA; COMMERCE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ETHNIC GROUPS; HUMANS; INCOME; INTERNATIONALITY; NEOPLASMS; PARTICULATE MATTER; RAILROADS; RESIDENCE CHARACTERISTICS; RISK ASSESSMENT; VEHICLE EMISSIONS;

EID: 84894273041     PISSN: 16617827     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph110201914     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. Some examples include: Union Pacific: Santa Teresa, New Mexico; Wilmington, California. BNSF: Memphis, Tennessee; Edgerton, Kansas; Wilmington, California. CSX: Baltimore, Maryland; North Baltimore, Ohio. Norfolk Southern: McCalla, Alabama; New Market, Tennessee; Charlotte, North Carolina; Greencastle, Pennsylvania; Prichard, West Virginia; Memphis, Tennessee. Norfolk Southern: Englewood (Chicago), Illinois; Norfolk Southern and Pan Am Railway: Upstate NY.
2. Hricko, A. Progress and pollution: Port cities prepare for the panama canal expansion. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, A470-A473.
3. Matsuoka, M.; Hricko, A.; Gottlieb, R.; DeLara, J. Global Trade Impacts: Addressing the Health, Social and Environmental Consequences of Moving International Freight through Our Communities. 2011. Available online: http://scholar.oxy.edu/uep_faculty/411 (accessed on 15 November 2013).
4. Wyss, J.; Charles, J.; Whitefield, M. Latin American ports ready for Panama Canal expansion. Miami Herald, 23 November 2012. Available online: http://www.miamiherald.com/2012/11/23/ 3110087/latin-american-ports-ready-for.html (accessed on 15 November 2013).
5. Garshick, E.; Schenker, M.B.; Muñoz, A.; Segal, M.; Smith, T.J.; Woskie, S.R.; Hammond, S.K.; Speizer, F.E. A case-control study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust exposure in railroad workers. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1987, 135, 1242-1248.
6. Diesel Exhaust and Cancer. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region Website. Available online: http://www.epa.gov/region1/eco/diesel/health_effects.html (accessed on 15 November 2013).
7. IARC: Diesel Engine Exhaust Carcinogenic; World Health Organization: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2012. Available online: http://www.iarc.fr/en/mediacentre/ pr/2012/pdfs/pr213_E.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
8. Vermuelen, R, Silverman DT, Garshick E, Vlaanderen J, Portengen L, Steenland K. Exposureresponse estimates for diesel engine exhaust and lung cancer mortality based on data from three occupational cohorts. Environ Health Perspect. 2014, 122, 172-177.
9. Galvis, B.; Bergin, M.; Russell, A. Fuel-based fine particulate and black carbon emission factors from a railyard area in Atlanta. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 2013, 63, 648-58.
10. Cahill, T.A.; Cahill, T.M.; Barnes, D.E.; Spada, N.J.; Miller, R. Inorganic and organic aerosols downwind of California's roseville railyard. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 1049-1059.
11. Gauderman, W.J.; Vora, H.; McConnell, R.; Berhane, K.; Gilliland, F.; Thomas, D.; Lurmann, F.; Avol, E.; Kunzli, N.; Jerrett, M.; et al. Effect of exposure to traffic on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age: A cohort study. Lancet 2007, 369, 571-577.
12. McConnell, R.; Berhane, K.; Yao, L.; Jerrett, M.; Lurmann, F; Gilliland, F.; Künzli, N.; Gauderman, J.; Avol, E.; Thomas, D.; et al. Traffic, susceptibility, and childhood asthma. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 766-772.
13. Gauderman, W.J.; Avol, E.; Lurmann, F.; Kuenzli, N.; Gilliland, F.; Peters, J.; McConnell, R. Childhood asthma and exposure to traffic and nitrogen dioxide. Epidemiology 2005, 16, 737-743.
14. McConnell, R.; Islam, T.; Shankardass, K.; Jerrett, M.; Lurmann, F.; Gilliland, F; Gauderman, J.; Avol, E.; Künzli, N.; Yao, L.; et al. Childhood incident asthma and traffic-related air pollution at home and school. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118, 1021-1026.
15. Green, R.S.; Malig, B.; Windham, G.; Fenster, L.; Ostro, B.; Swan, S. Residential exposure to traffic and spontaneous abortion. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117, 1939-1944.
16. Wu, J.; Ren, C.; Delfino, R.J.; Chung, J.; Wilhelm, M.; Ritz, B. Association between local traffic-generated air pollution and preeclampsia and preterm delivery in the South Coast air basin of California. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117, 1773-1779.
17. Ranft, U.; Schikowski, T.; Sugiri, D.; Krutmann, J.; Krämer, U. Long-term exposure to traffic-related particulate matter impairs cognitive function in the elderly. Environ. Res. 2009, 109, 1004-1011.
18. Peters, A.; von Klot, S.; Mittleman, M.A.; Meisinger, C.; Hörmann, A.; Kuch, B.; Wichmann, H.E. Triggering of acute myocardial infarction by different means of transportation. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 2013, 20, 750-758.
19. Air Quality and Land Use Handbook: A Community Health Perspective; California Environmental Protection Agency, 2005. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/ch/handbook.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
20. The Modesta Avila Coalition. 2005. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/gmp/ p2comments/set2/modesta_avila_coalition.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
21. Statewide Rail Agreement. California Air Resources Board. Signed 2005. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/ryagreement/ryagreement.htm (accessed on 15 November 2013).
22. Railyard Health Risk Assessments and Mitigation Measures; California Air Resources Board. Completed 2006-2008. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/hra/hra.htm (accessed on 15 November 2013).
23. Trade, Health, Environment: Making the Case for Change. THE Impact Project, 2009. Available online: http://hydra.usc.edu/scehsc/web/index.html (accessed on 15 November 2013). Note: TheCommunity Outreach and Engagement Program (COEP) of the Southern CaliforniaEnvironmental Health Science Center, based at Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern CA, is one of two academic partners in this community/academic collaborative. AuthorAndrea Hricko directs the COEP.Author Angelo Logan, director of East Yard Communities forEnvironmental Justice, is a community partner in the collaborative. All of THE Impact Projectpartners have publicly participated in responding to requests for verbal and written comments onthe public health impacts that might result from various proposed rail yard projects by the Portsof Los Angeles, Long Beach and an entity called the Joint Powers Authority.
24. Garcia, A.P.; Wallerstein, N.; Hricko, A.; Marquez, J.N.; Logan, A.; Nasser, E.G.; Minkler, M. THE (Trade, Health, Environment) Impact Project: A community-based participatory research environmental justice case study. Environ. Justice 2013, 6, 17-26.
25. Minkler, M.; Garcia, A.P.; Rubin, V.; Wallerstein, N. Community-Based Participatory Research: A Strategy for Building Healthy Communities and Promoting Health through Policy Change; PolicyLink, 2012. Available online: http://www.policylink.org/atf/cf/%7B97C6D565-BB43-406D-A6D5-ECA3BBF35AF0%7D/CBPR.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
26. Sorba, M.J. California Group Protests BNSF Rail Yard Pollution. 20 April 2010. Available online: http://www.ble-t.org/pr/news/headline.asp?id=29990 (accessed on 15 November 2013).
27. The Need for Locomotive and Rail Yard Regulations; East Yard Communities for Environmental Justice, 2009. Available online: http://eycej.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/FS_LocomotiveRY.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
28. Environmental Justice Website. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available online: http://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice (accessed on 15 November 2013).
29. Wing, S.; Cole, D.; Grant, G. Environmental injustice in North Carolina's hog industry. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108, 225-231.
30. Miranda, M.L.; Edwards, S.E.; Keating, M.H.; Paul, C.J. Making the environmental justice grade: The relative burden of air pollution exposure in the United States. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 1755-1771.
31. Wilson, S.M.; Fraser-Rahim, H.; Williams, E.; Zhang, H.; Rice, L.; Svendsen, E.; Abara, W. Assessment of the distribution of toxic release inventory facilities in metropolitan Charleston: An environmental justice case study. Am. J. Public Health 2012, 102, 1974-80.
32. Morello-Frosch, R.; Pastor, K., Jr.; Porras, C.; Sadd, J. Environmental justice and regional inequality in southern California: Implications for future research. Environ. Health Perspect. 2002, 110, 149-154.
33. Balazs, C.L.; Morello-Frosch, R.; Hubbard, A.E.; Ray, I. Environmental justice implications of arsenic contamination in California's San Joaquin Valley: A cross-sectional, cluster-design examining exposure and compliance in community drinking water systems. Environ. Health 2012, 11, 84, doi:10.1186/1476-069X-11-84.
34. Romley, J.A.; Cohen, D.; Ringel, J.; Sturm, R. Alcohol and environmental justice: The density of liquor stores and bars in urban neighborhoods in the United States. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 2007, 68, 48-55.
35. Age, Income, and Racial/Ethnic Composition of Populations Exposed to DPM in the Vicinity of Rail Yards and Terminals, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2003. Available online: http://hydra.usc.edu/scehsc/web/resources/Map/Railyards/EPA-HQ-OAR-2003-0190-0752.8.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
36. California Air Resources Board. Rail Emission Reduction Program. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/railyard.htm (accessed on 15 November 2013).
37. ARB Health Risk Assessment Guidance for Rail Yard and Intermodal Facilities; California Air Resources Board, 2006. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/hra/1107hra_guideline.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
38. Air Dispersion Modeling in Risk Assessment: Overview. In Technical Support Document forExposure Assessment and Stochastic Analysis; Chapter 2. Available online: http://www.oehha.ca.gov/ air/hot_spots/pdf/2012tsd/Chapter2_2012.pdf (accessed on 10 September 2012).
39. Health Risk Assessment for the BNSF Railway San Bernardino Railyard, Table II-1; California Air Resources Board, 2008. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/hra/ bnsf_sb_final.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
40. Health Risk Assessment for the Four Commerce Railyards; California Air Resources Board, 2007. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/hra/4com_hra.pdf (accessed on 25 July 2013).
41. California Air Resources Board. Update on the Implementation of the 2005 ARB/Railroad Statewide Agreement. 2006. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/ryagreement/ 072006rpt.pdf, accessed on 2 December 2013).
42. California Air Resources Board. Sustainable Freight Transport Initiative. 2014. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/gmp/sfti/sfti.htm (accessed on 1 February 2014).
43. Health Risk Assessment for the UP Intermodal Container Transfer Facility (ICTF) and Dolores Railyards (Wilmington); California Air Resources Board, 2008. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/hra/up_ictf_hra.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
44. 2010 Commitments to Further Reduce Diesel PM Emissions at Four High Priority Railyards; California Air Resources Board, 2010. Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/ commitments/commitments.htm (accessed on 15 November 2013).
45. Health Risk Assessment for the Union Pacific Railroad Commerce Railyard; California Air Resources Board, 2007, Available online: http://www.arb.ca.gov/railyard/hra/up_com_hra.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
46. Health Risk Assessment for BNSF Hobart Yard (Commerce); California Air Resources Board 2008. Available online: (accessed on 15 November 2013).
47. Ethington, P.J.; Koistra, A.; DeYoung, E. Los Angeles County Union Census Tract Data Series, 1940-1990. University of Southern California User's Guide, 2000. Available online: http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/history/historylab/LAPUHK/Maps/Animated_Census/Data_Set/V1 01_USERS_GUIDE_2.htm (accessed on 15 November 2013).
48. Draft and Final Environmental Impact Reports for the ICTF. Los Angeles Harbor Department and Long Beach Harbor Department. 1982-1986. Available online: http://www.ictf-jpa.org/ document_library.php (accessed on 15 November 2013).
49. The Intermodal Container Transfer Facility (ICTF) Joint Powers Authority (JPA) website. Available online: http://www.ictf-jpa.org/ (accessed on 15 November, 2013).
50. Final Environmental Impact Report, BNSF Southern California International Gateway. Available online: http://www.portoflosangeles.org/EIR/SCIG/FEIR/feir_scig.asp (accessed on 15 November 2013).
51. Schoch, D. Proposed Rail Yard Angers Residents of Nearby Long Beach Community. Foes Say Diesel-Spewing Trucks Carrying Cargo to the Site Would Worsen Air Pollution. Railway Promises a "Green" Facility. Los Angeles Times, 6 October 2005. Available online: http://articles.latimes.com/2005/oct/06/local/me-rail6 (accessed on 15 November 2013).
52. Wyenn, M. Natural Resources Defense Council Switchboard Staff Blog. Community Members Speak out against BNSF's Proposed Los Angeles-area SCIG Rail Yard. 19 October 2012. Available online:http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/mwyenn/community_members_speak_out_ag.html (accessed on 15 November 2013).
53. Matsumoto, C.M. Public Comment Letter to the Joint Powers Authority of the Union Pacific ICTF; Long Beach Unified School District (LBUSD), 2009. Available online: http://www.ictf-jpa.org/ publiccomment/Letters/LBUSD-022309.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013). Note: The LBUSD isalso a plaintiff in a lawsuit against the Port of Los Angeles and City of Los Angeles on the BNSFSCIG.
54. BNSF Connects. A Website Devoted to the BNSF SCIG. Available online: http://www.bnsfconnects. com/content/home (accessed on 15 November 2013).
55. Recirculated Draft Environmental Impact Report on the BNSF Southern California International Gateway. Chapters 3, 4 and 6. September 2012. Available online: http://www.portoflosangeles.org/ EIR/SCIG/RDEIR/rdeir_scig.asp (accessed on 15 November 2013).
56. Weikel, D. Controversial Port Rail Yard Wins Approval of L.A. City Council. Governing, 9 May 2013. Available online: http://www.governing.com/news/local/mct-new-railyard-wins-approvalof-la-city-council.html (accessed on 15 November 2013).
57. Pacific Maritime Online. Three More Groups Sue over SCIG Project. Available online: http://www.pmmonlinenews.com/2013/06/three-more-groups-sue-over-scig-project.html (accessed on 15 November 2013).
58. Peterson, M. Environmentalists, City of Long Beach, Air Regulators All File CEQA Challenges to Proposed Rail Transfer Yard. KPCC-FM. 8 June 2013. Available online: http://www.scpr.org/ blogs/environment/2013/06/08/13931/environmentalists-city-of-long-beach-air-regulator (accessed on 15 November 2013). Note: East Yard Communities for Environmental Justice, Directed by AngeloLogan, is One of the Plaintiffs in the Case.
59. Norfolk Southern Railway Company. Birmingham Regional Intermodal Facility, Undated. Available online: http://www.thefutureneedsus.com/images/uploads/BHamFactSheet_Proof_1.pdf (accessed on 13 November 2013).
60. Brozdowski, J. Containing an Expansion. South Side Weekly, 9 October 2013. Available online: http://southsideweekly.com/containing-an-expansion/ (accessed on 15 November 2013).
61. Shen, F. Small Community in the Path of Rail Project with Big Political Momentum. Available online: http://www.baltimorebrew.com/2013/09/20/small-community-in-the-path-of-rail-projectwith-big-political-momentum/ (accessed on 15 November 2013).
62. Jefferson County Tomorrow Retains Hurley Law Firm. Jefferson County Post, 27 May 2013. Available online: http://jeffersoncountypost.com/?p=9653 (accessed on 15 November 2013).
63. McGoldrick, J. No freight intermodal. Available online: http://www.streetcorner.com.au/news/ showPost.cfm?bid=20614&mycomm=WCwww.nointermodal.com (accessed on 15 November 2013).
64. ICF International. Estimation of diesel particulate matter concentration isopleths for marine harbor areas and rail yards: Appendix H, Memorandum to EPA under Work Assignment Number 03, Contract Number EPC06094, September 2007. Memo available in Docket EPA-HQ-OAR-20030190.
65. Age, Income, and Racial/Ethnic Composition of Populations Exposed to DPM in the Vicinity of Rail Yards and Terminals; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-HQ-OAR-2003-0190-0752.8, 2003. Available online: http://hydra.usc.edu/scehsc/web/resources/Map/Railyards/EPAHQ-OAR-2003-0190-0752.8.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
66. Reducing Air Emissions Associated With Goods Movement: Working Towards Environmental Justice (PDF), November 2009; EPA Response to Recommendations of the Goods Movement Work Group of the National Environmental Justice Advisory Council, July 2010. Available online: http://www.epa.gov/compliance/ej/nejac/recommendations.html (accessed on 15 November 2013). Note: Authors Andrea Hricko and Angelo Logan were U.S. EPA appointees to this GoodsMovement Work Group.
67. EPA Needs to Improve Its Efforts to Reduce Air Emissions at U.S. Ports; U.S. EPA Inspector General, 09P0125, 23 March 2009. Available online: http://www.epa.gov/oig/reports/2009/ 20090323-09-P-0125.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).
68. Cole, B.L.; Fielding, J.E. Health impact assessment: A tool to help policy makers understand health beyond health care. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2007, 28, 393-412.
69. National Center for Healthy Housing. Baltimore-Washington Rail Intermodal Facility Health Impact Assessment. 2013. Available online: http://www.nchh.org/Policy/HealthImpactAssessment/ BaltimoreWashingtonRailIntermodalFacilityHIA.aspx (accessed on 15 November 2013).
70. EPA Insight Policy Paper: Executive Order #12898 on Environmental Justice. Citing "Executive Order on Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations"-February 11, 1994 by President Clinton. Available online: http://www.epa.gov/fedfac/documents/executive_order_12898.htm (accessed on 15 November 2013).
71. Vivar, J.; Vallianotos, M. The Impact Project Policy Brief Series. January 2012. Available online: http://hydra.usc.edu/scehsc/pdfs/Rail%20issue%20brief.%20January%202012.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2013).