Use of macrocycles in nuclear-waste cleanup: A realworld application of a calixcrown in cesium separation technology

Macrocyclic Chemistry: Current Trends and Future Perspectives

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 383-405

  Moyer, Bruce A ^a   Birdwell Jr , Joseph F ^a   Bonnesen, Peter V ^a   Delmau, Laetitia H ^a  

^a OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84892320189     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/1-4020-3687-6_24     Document Type: Chapter

References (99)

1. 3 Solutions-a Technology Review and Assessment, Sep. Sci. Technol. 22 (2-3) (1987) 191- 214.
2. Horwitz, E. P. and Schulz, W. W.: Solvent Extraction in the Treatment of Acidic High-Level Liquid Waste, Where Do We Stand? In Metal-Ion Separation and Preconcentration, .
3. Bond, A. H., Dietz, M. L., and Rogers, R. D. (Eds.) ACS Symp. Ser., Vol. 716, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1999, pp. 20-50.
4. Dozol, J.-F., Casas i Garcia, J., and Sastre, A. M.: Applications of Crown-Ethers to Cesium and Strontium Removal from Marcoule Reprocessing Concentrate, in New Separation Chemistry Techniques for Radioactive Waste and Other Specific Applications, Cecille, L., Casarci, M., and Pietrelli, L. (Eds.) Elsevier Applied Science, Amsterdam, 1991, pp. 173-185.
5. Egorov, N. N., Zakharov, M. A., Lazarev, L. N., Lyubtsev, R. I., Nikiforov, A. S., Strakhov, M. V., and Filippov, E. A.: New Solutions to the Problem of Handling Long Lived Radionuclides. Soviet Atomic Energy 72(2) (1992) 148-150.
6. Filippov, E. A., Dzekun, E. G., Nardova, A. K., Mamakin, I. V., Gelis, V. M., and Milyutin, V. V.: Application of Crown Ethers and Ferrocyanide-Based Inorganic Material for Cesium and Strontium Recovery from High-Level Radioactive Wastes, Proc. Waste Management '92, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A., Mar. 1-5, 1992, pp. 1021-1025.
7. Dozol, J.-F., Bohmer, V., McKervey, A., Lopez Calahorra, F., Reinhoudt, D., Schwing, M.-J., Ungaro, R., and Wipff, G.: New Macrocyclic Extractants for Radioactive Waste Treatment, Ionizable Crown Ethers and Functionalized Calixarenes, Report EUR-17615, European Communities, Luxembourg, 1997.
8. Blasius, E. and Nilles, K.-H.: The Removal of Cesium from Medium-Active Waste Solutions. I. Evaluation of Crown Ethers and Special Crown-Ether Adducts in the Solvent Extraction of Cesium, Radiochim. Acta 35 (1984) 173-182.
9. 2, Sep. Sci. Technol. 14(5) (1979) 395-414.
10. Ungaro, R., Casnati, A., Ugozzoli, F., Pochini, A., Dozol, J.-F., and Hill, C., Rouquette, H.: 1, 3- Dialkoxycalix[4]arenecrowns-6 in 1, 3-Alternate Conformation, Cesium-Selective Ligands that Exploit Cation-Arene Interactions, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed Engl. 33(14) (1994) 1506-1509.
11. Asfari, Z., Wenger, S., and Vicens, J.: Calixcrowns and Related Molecules. J. Inclusion Phenom. Mol. Recognit. Chem. 19 (1994) 137-148.
12. Hill, C., Dozol, J. F., Lamare, V., Rouquette, H., Eymard, S., Tournois, B., Vicens, J., Asfari, Z., Bressot, C., Ungaro, R., Casnati, A.: Nuclear Waste Treatment by Means of Supported Liquid Membranes Containing Calix-Crown Compounds, J. Incl. Phenom. Mol. Recogn. Chem. 19 (1994) 399-408.
13. Asfari, Z., Bressot, C., Vicens, J., Hill, C., Dozol, J.-F., Rouquette, H., Eymard, S., Lamare, V., Tournois, B.: Doubly Crowned Calix[4]arenes in the 1, 3-Alternate Conformation as Cesium-Selective Carriers in Supported Liquid Membranes. Anal. Chem. 67 (1995) 3133-3139.
14. Asfari, Z., Bressot, C., Vicens, J., Hill, C., Dozol, J. F., Rouquette, H., Eymard, S., Lamare, V., Tournois, B.: Cesium Removal From Nuclear Waste Water by Supported Liquid Membranes Containing Calix-bis-crown Compounds, in Chemical Separations with Liquid Membranes, ACS Symp. Ser., Vol. 642, American Chemical Society, Washington, 1996, pp. 376-390.
15. Asfari, Z., Wenger, S., Vicens, J.: Calixcrowns and Related Molecules, Pure Appl. Chem. 67(7) (1995) 1037-1043.
16. Lamare, V., Bressot, C., Dozol, J. F., Vicens, J., Asfari, Z., Ungaro, R., and Casnati, A.: Selective Extraction of Cesium at Tracer Level Concentration from a Sodium Nitrate Solution With Calixcrowns. Molecular Modeling Study of the Cs+/Na+ Selectivity, Sep. Sci. Technol. 32 (1997) 175-191.
17. Dozol, J. F., Simon, N., Lamare, V., Rouquette, H., Eymard, S., Tournois, B., De Marc, D., Macias, R. M.: A Solution for Cesium Removal from High-Salinity Acidic or Alkaline Liquid Waste, The Crown Calix[4]arenes, Sep. Sci. Technol. 34 (1999) 877-909.
18. Moyer, B. A., Bonnesen, P. V., Sachleben, R. A., Presley, D. J.: "Solvent and Process for Extracting Cesium from Alkaline Waste Solutions, " U. S. Patent 6, 174, 503, Jan. 16, 2001.
19. Bonnesen, P. V., Moyer, B. A., Sachleben, R. A.: "Fluoro-alcohol Phase Modifiers and Process for Cesium Solvent Extraction." U. S. Patent 6, 566, 561, May 20, 2003.
20. Research Needs for High-Level Waste Stored in Tanks and Bins at U.S. Department of Energy Sites, National Research Council, National Academy Press, 2001.
21. Nuclear Wastes, Technologies for Separations and Transmutation, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1996, pp. 192, 193.
22. Linking Legacies, USDOE Report DOE/EM-0319, 1997.
23. U.S. Department of Energy Record of Decision, Savannah River Site Salt Processing Alternatives, Federal Register, Vol. 66, No. 201, pp. 52752-52756, October 17, 2001.
24. Mow Lee, L. and Kilpatrik, L. L.: A Precipitation Process for Supernatant Decontamination, Report DP-1636, E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Savannah River Laboratory, Aiken, SC, 1982.
25. Walker, D. D., Barnes, M. J., Crawford, C. L., Peterson, R. A., Swingle, R. F., and Fink, S. D.: In-Tank Precipitation with Tetraphenylborate, Recent Progress and Research Results, in Science and Technology for Disposal of Radioactive Tank Wastes, Schultz, W. W., and Lombardo, N. J. (Eds.) Plenum Press, New York, 1998, pp. 219-230.
26. Bunker, B., Virden, J., Kuhn, B., and Quinn, R.: Nuclear Materials, Radioactive Tank Wastes, in Encyclopedia of Energy Technology and the Environment, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1995, pp. 2023-2032.
27. Hunter, J. R.: In Proceedings of the First Hanford Workshop on Separation Science and Technology, Richland, WA, July 23-25, 1991, Report PNL-SA-21775, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, U.S.A., May, 1993, pp. I.5-I.10.
28. Gephart, R. E. and Lundgren, R. E.: Hanford Tank Clean up: A Guide to Understanding the Technical Issues, Report PNL-10773, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 1995.
29. Delmau, L. H., Lefranc, T. J., Bonnesen, P. V., Bryan, J. C., Presley, D. J., and Moyer, B. A.: Fundamental Studies Regarding Synergism Between Calix[4]arene-bis(tert-octylbenzo-crown-6) and Alcohol Modifiers in the Solvent Extraction of Cesium Nitrate, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., in press.
30. Delmau, L. H., Bonnesen, P. V., Herlinger, A. W., and Chiarizia, R.: Aggregation Behavior of Solvent Modifiers for the Extraction of Cesium from Caustic Media, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., in press.
31. Engle, N. L., Bonnesen, P. V., Tomkins, B. A., Haverlock, T. J., and Moyer, B. A.: Synthesis and Properties of Calix[4]arene-bis[4-(2-ethylhexyl) benzo-crown-6], a Cesium Extractant with Improved Solubility, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch. 22(4) (2004) 611-636.
32. Delmau, L. H., Bonnesen, P. V., and Moyer, B. A.: A Solution to Stripping Problems Caused by Organophilic Anion Impurities in Crown-Ether Based Solvent Extraction Systems, A Case Study of Cesium Removal from Radioactive Wastes, Hydrometallurgy 72(1, 2) (2004) 9-19.
33. Norato, M. A., Beasley, M. H., Campbell, S. G., Coleman, A. D., Geeting, M. W., Guthrie, J. W., Kennell, C. W., Pierce, R. A., Ryberg, R. C., Walker, D. D., Law, J. D., and Todd, T. A.: Demonstration of the Caustic-side Solvent Extraction Process for the Removal of Cs-137 from Savannah River Site High Level Waste, Sep. Sci. Technol. 38(12, 13) (2003) 2647-2666.
34. White, T. L., Peterson, R. A., Wilmarth, W. R., Norato, M. A., Crump, S. L., and Delmau, L. H.: Stability Study of Cs Extraction Solvent, Sep. Sci. Technol. 38(12, 13) (2003) 2667-2683.
35. Wilmarth, W. R., Mills, J. T., Dukes, V. H., Beasley, M. C., Coleman, A. D., Diprete, C. C., and Diprete, D. P.: Caustic-side Solvent Extraction Batch Distribution Coefficient Measurements for Savannah River Site High-level Wastes, Sep. Sci. Technol. 38(12, 13) (2003) 2637-2645.
36. Leonard, R. A., Aase, S. B., Arafat, H. A., Conner, C., Chamberlain, D. B., Falkenberg, J. R., Regalbuto, M. C., and Vandegrift, G. F.: Experimental Verification of Caustic-side Solvent Extraction Removal of Cesium from Tank Waste, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch. 21(4) (2003) 505-526.
37. Delmau, L. H., Baes, C. F. Jr., Bostick, D. A., Haverlock, T. J., and Moyer, B. A.: Solvent Extraction System Modeling Using the Program SXFIT, in Leaching and Solution Purification, Hydrometallurgy 2003-Fifth International Conference, Vol. 1, Proceedings of the 2003 International Symposium on Hydrometallurgy, Vancouver, Canada, August 24-27, 2003, .
38. Young, C. A., Alfantazi, A. M., Anderson, C. G., Dreisinger, D. B., Harris, B., and James, A. (Eds.) TMS (The Minerals, Metals, and Materials Society) Warrendale, PA, 2003, pp. 969-981.
39. Bonnesen, P. V., Delmau, L. H., Moyer, B. A., and Lumetta, G. J.: Development of Effective Solvent Modifiers for the Solvent Extraction of Cesium from Alkaline High-Level Tank Waste, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch. 21(2) (2003) 141-170.
40. Bonnesen, P. V., Delmau, L. H., Haverlock, T. J., Levitskaia, T. G., Sachleben, R. A., Sloop, F. V. Jr., and Moyer, B. A.: Science to Applications, Development of the Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction Process for Cesium Removal from Savannah River Waste, Proc. 9th Biennial Internat. Conf. Nuclear and Hazardous Waste Management (Spectrum 2002) Aug. 4-8, 2002, Reno, Nevada.
41. Bryan, J. C., Chen, T., Levitskaia, T. G., Haverlock, T. J., Barnes, C. E., and Moyer, B. A.: Solvation of Calix[4]arene-bis-crown-6 Molecules, J. Inclusion Phenom. 42(3-4) (2002) 241-245.
42. Duchemin, C. R., Engle, N. L., Bonnesen, P. V., Haverlock, T. J., Delmau, L. H., and Moyer, B. A.: Solvatochromic Solvent Polarity Measurements of Alcohol Solvent Modifiers and Correlation with Cesium Extraction Strength, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch. 19(2001) 1037-1058.
43. Leonard, R. A., Conner, C., Liberatore, M. W., Sedlet, J., Aase, S. B., Vandegrift, G. F., Delmau, L. H., Bonnesen, P. V., and Moyer, B. A.: Development of a Solvent Extraction Process for Cesium Removal from SRS Tank Waste, Sep. Sci. Technol. 36(5-6) (2001) 743-766.
44. Moyer, B. A., Bonnesen, P. V., Delmau, L. H., Haverlock, T. J., Sachleben, R. A., Leonard, R. A., Conner, C., and Lumetta, G. J.: Solvent Extraction of Tc and Cs from Alkaline Nitrate Wastes, inSolvent Extraction for the 21st Century, M. Cox, M. Hidalgo, and M. Valiente (Eds.) Society of Chemical Industry, London, 2001, Proc. Internat. Solvent Extraction Conference (ISEC '99) Barcelona, Spain, July 11-16, 1999, Vol. 2, pp. 1365-1369.
45. Bonnesen, P. V., Delmau, L. H., Moyer, B. A., and Leonard, R. A.: A Robust Alkaline-side CSEX Solvent Suitable for Removing Cesium from Savannah River High Level Waste, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch.18(6) (2000) 1079-1107.
46. Bonnesen, P. V., Haverlock, T. J., Engle, N. L., Sachleben, R. A., and Moyer, B. A.: Development of Process Chemistry for the Removal of Cesium from Acidic Nuclear Waste by Calix[4]arene-Crown-6 Ethers, in Calixarene Molecules for Separations, .
47. G. J. Lumetta, R. D. Rogers, and A. S. Gopalan (Eds.) ACS Symposium Series, Vol. 757, American Chemical Society, Washington, D. C., 2000, Chap. 3, pp. 26-44.
48. Haverlock, T. J., Bonnesen, P. V., Sachleben, R. A., and Moyer, B. A.: Analysis of Equilibria in the Extraction of Cesium Nitrate by Calix[4]arene-bis(t-octylbenzo-crown-6) in 1, 2-Dichloroethane, J. Incl. Phenom. Mol. Recognit. Chem. 36 (2000) 21-37.
49. Sachleben, R. A., Bonnesen, P. V., Descazeaud, T., Haverlock, T. J., Urvoas, A., and Moyer, B. A.: Surveying the Extraction of Cesium Nitrate by 1, 3-Alternate Calix[4]arene Crown-6 Ethers in 1, 2- Dichloroethane, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch. 17 (1999) 1445-1459.
50. Thuéry, P., Nierlich, M., Bryan, J. C., Lamare, V., Dozol, J.-F., Asfari, Z., and Vicens, J. Crown Ether Conformations in 1, 3-Calix[4]arene Bis-crown Ethers, Crystal Structures of a Caesium Complex and Solvent Adducts and Molecular Dynamic Simulations, J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans. (1997) 4191- 4202.
51. Haverlock, T. J., Bonnesen, P. V., Sachleben, R. A., and Moyer, B. A.: Applicability of a Calixarene- Crown Compound for the Removal of Cesium from Alkaline Tank Waste, Radiochim. Acta. 76 (1997) 103-108.
52. Delmau, L. H., : Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction, Chemical and Physical Properties of the Optimized Solvent, Report ORNL/TM-2002/190, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, October, 2002.
53. Moyer, B. A., Alexandratos, S. D., Bonnesen, P. V., Brown, G. M., Caton, J. E., Delmau, L. H., Duchemin, C. R., Haverlock, T. J., Levitskaia, T. G., Maskarinec, M. P., Sloop, F. V., and Stine, C. L.: Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction Chemical and Physical Properties, Progress in FY 2000 and FY 2001, Report ORNL/TM-2001/285, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, February 2002.
54. Bonnesen, P. V., Delmau, L. H., Haverlock, T. J., and Moyer, B. A.: Alkaline-Side Extraction of Cesium from Savannah River Tank Waste Using a Calixarene-Crown Ether Extractant, Report ORNL/TM-13704, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, December 1998.
55. Delmau, L. H., Haverlock, T. J., Sloop, F. V., and Moyer, B. A.: Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction, Prediction of Cesium Extraction from Actual Wastes and Actual Waste Simulants, Report ORNL/TM- 2003/011, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, February 2003.
56. Delmau, L. H., Bostick, D. A., Haverlock, T. J., and Moyer, B. A.: Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction, Extended Equilibrium Modeling of Cesium and Potassium Distribution Behavior, Report ORNL/TM- 2002/116, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, May 2002.
57. Delmau, L. H., Haverlock, T. J., Levitskaia, T. G., Sloop, F. V., and Moyer, B. A.: Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction Chemical and Physical Properties, Equilibrium Modeling of Distribution Behavior Report ORNL/TM-2001/267, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, December 2001.
58. Lee, D. D., Birdwell, J. F.Jr., Bonnesen, P. V., and Tomkins, B. A.: Density Changes in the Optimized CSSX Solvent System, Report ORNL/TM-2002/204, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, October 2002.
59. Birdwell, J. F., and Anderson, K. K.: Evaluation of Mass Transfer Performance for Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction of Cesium in a Conventional 5-cm Centrifugal Contactor, Report ORNL/TM- 2001/278, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, January 2002.
60. Birdwell, J. F., Anderson, K. K., and Hobson, D. E.: Investigation of Emulsion Formation in Solvent Washing in the Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction (CSSX) Process, Report ORNL/TM-2002/126, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, June 2002.
61. Birdwell, J. F., and Anderson, K. K.: Evaluation of 5-cm Centrifugal Contactor Hydraulic and Mass Transfer Performance for Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction of Cesium, Report ORNL/TM-2001/137, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, August 2001.
62. Birdwell, J. F., and Cummings, R. L.: Irradiation Effects on Phase-Separation Performance Using a Centrifugal Contactor in a Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction Process, Report ORNL/TM-2001/91, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, August 2001.
63. Spence, R. D., Delmau, L. H., Klatt, L. N., Sloop, F. V., Bonnesen, P. V., and Moyer, B. A.: Batch- Equilibrium Hot-Cell Tests of Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction (CSSX) with SRS Simulant Waste and Internal 137Cs Irradiation, Report ORNL/TM-2001/49, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, September, 2001.
64. Harmon, H., Schlahta, S, Wester, D., Walker, J., Fink, S., and Thompson, M.: Tanks Focus Area Savannah River Site Salt Processing Project Research and Development Summary Report, Report TFA-0105, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, May 2001.
65. Miller, J. E., Brown, N. E., Krumhansl, J. L., Trudell, D. E., Anthony, R. G., and Philip, C. V.: Development and Properties of Cesium Selective Crystalline Silicotitanate (CST) Ion Exchangers for Radioactive Waste Applications, in Science and Technology for Disposal of Radioactive Tank Wastes, Schultz, W. W. and Lombardo, N. J. (Eds.) Plenum Press, New York, 1998, pp. 269-286.
66. Samanta, S. K. and Misra, B. M.: Ion Exchange Selectivity of a Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Polycondensate Resin for Cesium in Relation to Other Alkali Metal Ions, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch, 13(3) (1995) 575-589.
67. Bibler, J. P., Wallace, R. M., and Bray, L. A.: Testing a New Cesium-Specific Ion Exchange Resin for Decontamination of Alkaline High-Activity Waste, Report WSRC-RP-89, Westinghouse Savannah River Co., Aiken, SC, 1989.
68. Samanta, S. K., Ramaswamy, M., and Misra, B. M.: Studies on Cesium Uptake by Phenolic Resins, Sep. Sci. Technol. 27(2) (1992) 255-267.
69. Hassan, N. M., McCabe, D. J., King, W. D., Hamm, L. L., and Johnson, M. E.: Ion exchange removal of cesium from Hanford tank waste supernates with SuperLig (R) 644 resin, J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 254(1) (2002) 33-40.
70. Leonard, R. A., Conner, C., Liberatore, M. W., Sedlet, J., Aase, S. B., and Vandegrift, G. F.: Evaluation of an Alkaline-Side Solvent Extraction Process for Cesium Removal from SRS Tank Waste , , Argonne, IL, August, ,.
71. Birdwell, J. F., Counce, R. M., and Slater, C. O.: Conceptual Design of a Simplified Skid-Mounted Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction Process for Removal of Cesium from Savannah River Site High-Level Waste, Report ORNL/TM-2004/59, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, May 2004.
72. Thuery, P., Nierlich, M., Bressot, C., Lamare, V., Dozol, J. F., Asfari, Z., and Vicens, J.: Crystal and molecular structures of binuclear caesium complexes with 1, 3-calix[4]-bis-crown-6 and 1, 3-calix[4]- bis-benzo-crown- 6, J. Inclusion Phenom. Mol. Recognit. Chem. 23(4) (1995) 305-312.
73. Horwitz, E. P.: Solvent Extraction in the Treatment of Acidic High-Level Liquid Waste, Where Do We Stand? In Metal Ion Separation and Preconcentration. Progress and Opportunities, ACS Symposium Series, Vol. 716, Bond, A. H., Dietz, M. L., and Rogers, R. D. (Eds.) American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1999, pp. 20-50.
74. Chemical Pretreatment of Nuclear Waste for Disposal, Schulz, W. W. and Horwitz, E. P. (Eds.) Plenum, New York, 1994.
75. Light Water Reactor Nuclear Fuel Cycle, Wymer, R. G. and Vondra, B. L. (Eds.) CRC, Boca Raton, 1981.
76. Musikas, C. and Schulz, W. W.: Solvent Extraction in Nuclear Science and Technology, in Principles and Practices of Solvent Extraction, Rydberg, J., Musikas, C., and Choppin, G. R. (Eds.) Marcel Dekker, New York, 1992, pp. 413-448.
77. Danesi, P. R.: Solvent Extraction in the Nuclear Industry, in Developments in Solvent Extraction, Alegret, S. (Ed.) Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1988, pp. 188-214.
78. Nash, K. L., Barrans, R. E., Chiarizia, R., Dietz, M. L., Jensen, M. P., Rickert, P. G., Moyer, B. A., Bonnesen, P. V., Bryan, J. C., and Sachleben, R. A.: Fundamental Investigations of Separations Science for Radioactive Materials, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch. 18(4) (2000) 605-631.
79. Todd, T. A., Law, J. D., Herbst, R. S., Lumetta, G. J., and Moyer, B. A.: Treatment of Radioactive Wastes Using Liquid-Liquid Extraction Technologies-Fears, Facts, and Issues, Proc. Waste Management Tucson, AZ, March 2000.
80. Dietz, M. L., Horwitz, E. P., and Rogers, R. D.: (1995) Extraction of Strontium from Acidic Nitrate Media Using a Modified Purex Solvent, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch. 13, 1-17.
81. Leonard, R. A., Conner, C., Liberatore, M. W., Bonnesen, P. V., Presley, D. J., Moyer, B. A., and Lumetta, G. J.: Developing and Testing an Alkaline-Side Solvent Extraction Process for Technetium Separation from Tank Waste, Sep. Sci. Technol. 34(6-7) (1999) 1043-1068.
82. Bonnesen, P. V., Moyer, B. A., Haverlock, T. J., Armstrong, V. S., and Sachleben, R. A.: Removal of Technetium from Alkaline Waste Media by a New Solvent Extraction Process, in Emerging Technologies in Hazardous Waste Management VI, D. W. Tedder and F. G. Pohland (Eds.) American Academy of Environmental Engineers, Annapolis, MD, 1996, pp. 245-262.
83. Moyer, B. A., Sachleben, R. A., and Bonnesen, P. V.: "Process for Extracting Technetium from Alkaline Solutions, " U. S. Patent 5, 443, 731, August 22, 1995.
84. Leonard, R. A.: Design Rules for Solvent Extraction, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch. 17(3) (1999) 597-612.
85. Bryan, J. C. and Bonnesen, P. V.: unpublished results.
86. Marcus, Y., Pross, E., and Hormadaly, J.: Anion Solvation Properties of Protic Solvents. 2. Salt Distribution Study, J. Phys. Chem. 84 (1980) 2708-2715.
87. Bonnesen, P. V., Sloop, F. V., and Engle, N. L.: Stability of the Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction (CSSX) Process Solvent, Effect of High Nitrite on Solvent Nitration, ORNL Report ORNL/TM- 2002/115, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, July 2002.
88. Delmau, L. H., Van Berkel, G. J., Bonnesen, P. V., and Moyer, B. A.: Improved Performance of the Alkaline-Side CSEX Process for Cesium Extraction from Alkaline High-Level Waste Obtained by Characterization of the Effect of Surfactant Impurities, Report ORNL/TM-1999/209, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 1999.
89. Norato, M. A., Cambell, S. G., Crowder, M. L., Geeting, M. W., Kessinger, G. F., Pierce, R. A., and Walker, D. D.: High-Level Waste Demonstration of the Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction Process with Optimized Solvent in the 2-cm Centrifugal Contactor Apparatus Using Tank 37H/44F Supernate, Report WSRC-TR-2002-00243, Rev. 0, Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, SC, November 1, 2002.
90. Norato, M. A., Fink, S. D., Fondeur, F. F., Kessinger, G. F., Pierce, R. A., and Walker, D. D.: Demonstration of Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction with Optimized Solvent in the 2-cm Centrifugal Contactor Apparatus Using Dissolved Salt Cake from Tank 37H, Report WSRC-TR-2002-00307, Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, SC, September 3, 2002.
91. Leonard, R. A., Aase, S. B., Arafat, H. A., Chamberlain, D. B., Conner, C., Regalbuto, M. C., and Vandegrift, G. F.: Multi-day Test of the Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction Flowsheet for Cesium Removal from a Simulated SRS Tank Waste, Report ANL-02/11, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, January 15, 2002.
92. Pereira, C., Arafat, H. A., Falkenberg, J. R., Regalbuto, M. C., and Vandegrift, G. F.: Recovery of Entrained CSSX Solvent from Caustic Aqueous Raffinate Using Coalescers, Report ANL-02/34, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, November 2002.
93. C. A. Langton: PUREX Organic Solidification, Report WSRC-TR-2002-00570, Rev. 0, Savannah River Technology Center, Aiken, SC, December, 2002.
94. Leonard, R. A., Chamberlain, D. B., and Conner, C.: Centrifugal Contactors for Laboratory-Scale Solvent Extraction Tests, Sep. Sci. Technol. 32(1-4) (1997) 193-210.
95. Leonard, R. A., Bernstein, G. J., Ziegler, A. A., and Pelto, R. H.: Annular Centrifugal Contactors for Solvent Extraction, Sep. Sci. Technol. 15(4) (1980) 925-943.
96. Wilmarth, W. R., Healy, D. P., Wheeler, D. J., Mills, J. T., Dukes, V. H., : Caustic Side Solvent Extraction Batch Distribution Measurements for SRS High Level Waste Samples and Dissolved Saltcake, Report WSRC-TR-2002-00336, Rev. 1, Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, SC, December 5, 2002.
97. Ritcey, G. M. and Ashbrook, A. W.: Solvent Extraction, Principles and Applications to Process Metallurgy, Elsevier, New York, 1984, Part I.
98. Leonard, R. A.: Solvent Characterization Using the Dispersion Number, Sep. Sci. Technol. 30(7-9) (1995) 1103-1122.
99. Campbell, S. G., Geeting, M. W., Kennell, C. W., Law, J. D., Leonard, R. A., Norato, M. A., Pierce, R. A., Todd, T. A., Walker, D. D., and Wilmarth, W. R.: Demonstration of Caustic-Side Solvent Extraction with Savannah River Site-High-Level Waste, Report WSRC-TR-2001-00223, Rev. 0, Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, SC, April 19, 2001.