Social class culture cycles: How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality

Annual Review of Psychology

Volumn 65, Issue , 2014, Pages 611-634

  Stephens, Nicole M ^a   Markus, Hazel Rose ^b   Phillips, L Taylor ^c  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Culture; Education; Inequality; Intervention; Social class

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; FAMILY; HUMAN; REVIEW; SCHOOL; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIOECONOMICS; WORKPLACE;

CULTURE; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; FAMILY; HUMANS; SCHOOLS; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; WORKPLACE;

EID: 84892188071     PISSN: 00664308     EISSN: 15452085     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115143     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Acker J. (2006). Inequality regimes: Gender, class, and race in organizations. Gend. Soc. 20:441-64
2. Anderson C, Berdahl JL. (2002). The experience of power: Examining the effects of power on approach and inhibition tendencies. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 83:1362-77
3. Anyon J. (1980). Social class and the hidden curriculum of work. J. Educ. 162:67-92
4. Apfelbaum EP, Pauker K, Sommers SR, Ambady N. (2010). In blind pursuit of racial equality? Psychol. Sci. 21:1587-92
5. Bacon N, Storey J. (1996). Individualism and collectivism and the changing role of trade unions. In The New Workplace and Trade Unionism, ed. P Ackers, C Smith, P Smith, pp. 41-76. London: Routledge
6. Barker Jr. (1993). Tightening the iron cage: Concertive control in self-managing teams. Admin. Sci. Q. 38:408-37
7. Barro RJ. (2001). Human capital and growth. Am. Econ. Rev. 91:12-17
8. Bellah RN, Madsen R, Sullivan WM, Swidler A, Tipton SM. (1985). Habits of the Heart. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
9. Berg JM, Wrzesniewski A, Dutton JE. (2010). Perceiving and responding to challenges in job crafting at different ranks: When proactivity requires adaptivity. J. Org. Behav. 31:158-86
10. Bernstein B. (1974). Class, Codes and Control. Volume 3: Towards a Theory of Educational Transmissions. New York
11. Routledge Bertrand M, Mullainathan S, Shafir E. (2004). Abehavioral-economics view of poverty. Am. Econ. Rev. 94:419-23
12. Bourdieu P. (1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice. London: Cambridge Univ. Press
13. Bowles S, Gintis H. (1976). Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life. New York: Basic Books
14. Calarco JM. (2011). "I need help!" Social class and children's help-seeking in elementary school. Am. Sociol. Rev. 76:862-82
15. Calif. State Audit. (2000). Standardized tests: Although some students may receive extra time on standardized tests that is not deserved, others may not be getting the assistance they need. Rep. 2000-108. Sacramento: Calif. State Audit.
16. Carnevale AP, Rose SJ. (2004). Socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and selective college admissions. In America's Untapped Resource: Low-Income Students in Higher Education, ed. RD Kahlenberg, pp. 101-56.
17. New York: Century Found. Carnevale A, Rose SJ, Cheah B. (2011). The College Payoff: Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings. Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Cent. Educ. Workforce
18. Castilla EJ, Benard S. (2010). The paradox of meritocracy in organizations. Admin. Sci. Q. 55:543-76
19. Chen E. (2004). Why socioeconomic status affects the health of children: A psychosocial perspective. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 13:112-15
20. Chen E, Miller GE. (2012). "Shift-And-persist" strategies: Why low socioeconomic status isn't always bad for health. Personal. Psychol. Sci. 7:135-58
21. Chen S, Lee-Chai AY, Bargh JA. (2001). Relationship orientation as a moderator of the effects of social power. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 80:173-87
22. Cooke RA, Rousseau DM. (1998). Behavioural norms and expectations: A quantitative approach to the assessment of organizational culture. Group Organ. Stud. 13:245-73
23. Correll SJ. (2004). Constraints into preferences: Gender, status, and emerging career aspirations. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69:93-113
24. Darling-Hammond L. (2006). Securing the right to learn: Policy and practice for powerful teaching and learning. Educ. Res. 35:13-24
25. Davies PG, Spencer SJ, Steele CM. (2005). Clearing the air: Identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women's leadership aspirations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 88:276-87
26. Day JC, Newburger EC. (2002). The Big Payoff: Educational Attainment and Synthetic Estimates of Work-Life Earnings. Washington, DC: US Census Bur. http://www. census. gov/prod/2002pubs/p23-210. pdf
27. Devine PG, Forscher PS, Austin AJ, Cox WTL. (2012). Long-Term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 48:1267-78
28. Duncan GJ, Murnane RJ. (2011). Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children's Life Chances. New York: Sage Found.
29. England GW. (1967). Personal value systems of American managers. Acad. Manag. J. 10:53-68
30. Evans GW. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. Am. Psychol. 59:77-92
31. Fiske ST, Markus HR. (2012). Facing Social Class: How Societal Rank Influences Interaction. New York: Sage
32. Found. Friedlander F. (1965). Comparative work value system. Pers. Psychol. 18:1-20
33. Fryberg SA, Markus HR. (2007). Cultural models of education in American Indian, Asian American and European American contexts. Soc. Psychol. Educ. 10:213-46
34. Greenfield PM. (1997). You can't take it with you: Why ability assessments don't cross cultures. Am. Psychol. 52:1115-24
35. Gruenfeld DH, Inesi ME, Magee JC, Galinsky AD. (2008). Power and the objectification of social targets. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 95:111-27
36. Guinote A. (2008). Power and affordances: When the situation has more power over powerful than powerless individuals. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 95:237-52
37. Gurin P, Nagda BA, Zuniga X. (2013). Dialogue Across Difference: Practice, Theory, and Research on Intergroup Dialogue. New York: Sage Found.
38. Hart B, Risley TR. (1995). Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore, Md. Brookes Publ.
39. Heath SB. (1982). What no bedtime story means: Narrative skills at home and school. Lang. Soc. 11:49-76
40. Hochschild JL. (1996). Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
41. Hong YY, Morris M, Chiu CY, Benet-Martínez V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. Am. Psychol. 55:709-20
42. Horvat EM, Weininger EB, Lareau A. (2003). From social ties to social capital: Class differences in the relations between schools and parent networks. Am. Educ. Res. J. 40:319-51
43. Hyman R. (1994). Anomaly or artifact? Comments on Bern and Honorton. Psychol. Rev. 115:19-24
44. Kawachi I, Kennedy E. (2002). The Health of Nations: Why Inequality Is Harmful to Your Health. New Press
45. Kim HS. (2002). We talk, therefore we think? A cultural analysis of the effect of talking on thinking. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 83:828-42
46. Kim YK, Sax LJ. (2009). Student-faculty interaction in research universities: Differences by student gender, race, social class, and first-generation status. Res. High. Educ. 50:437-59
47. Kohn ML. (1969). Class and Conformity: A Study in Values. Homewood, Ill. Dorsey
48. Kohn ML, Schooler C. (1969). Class, occupation, and orientation. Am. Sociol. Rev. 34:659-78
49. Kohn ML, Schooler C. (1973). Occupational experience and psychological functioning: An assessment of reciprocal effects. Am. Sociol. Rev. 38:97-118
50. Kraus MW, Piff PK, Keltner D. (2009). Social class, sense of control, and social explanation. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 97:992-1004
51. Kraus MW, Piff PK, Keltner D. (2011). Social class as culture: The convergence of resources and rank in the social realm. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 20:246-50
52. Kraus MW, Piff PK, Mendoza-Denton R, Rheinschmidt ML, Keltner D. (2012). Social class, solipsism, and contextualism: How the rich are different from the poor. Psychol. Rev. 119:546-72
53. Kusserow A. (2004). American Individualisms: Child Rearing and Social Class in Three Neighborhoods. New York
54. Palgrave Macmillan Kusserow A. (2012). When hard and soft clash: Class-based individualisms in Manhattan and Queens. See Fiske & Markus 2012, pp. 195-215
55. Lachman ME, Weaver SL. (1998). The sense of control as a moderator of social class differences in health and well-being. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 74:763-73
56. LaFromboise T, Coleman HL, Gerton J. (1993). Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and theory. Psychol. Bull. 114:395-412
57. Lamont M. (2000). The Dignity of Working Men: Morality and the Boundaries of Race, Class, and Immigration. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard Univ. Press
58. Lareau A. (1987). Social class differences in family-school relationships: The importance of cultural capital. Sociol. Educ. 60:73-85
59. Lareau A. (2003). Unequal Childhoods: Race, Class, and Family Life. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
60. Lareau A, Calarco JM. (2012). Class, cultural capital, and institutions: The case of families and schools. See Fiske & Markus 2012, pp. 61-86
61. Lareau A, Conley D. (2008). Social Class: How Does It Work? New York: Sage Found.
62. Lareau A, Weininger E. (2003). Cultural capital in educational research: A critical assessment. Theory Soc. 32:567-606
63. Lee F, Tiedens LZ. (2001). Is it lonely at the top? The independence and interdependence of power holders. Res. Org. Behav. 23:43-91
64. Li J. (2003). US and Chinese cultural beliefs about learning. J. Educ. Psychol. 95:258-67
65. MacLeod J. (2009). Ain't NoMakin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low-Income Neighborhood. Boulder, Colo. Westview. 3rd ed.
66. Markus HR, Conner A. (2013). Clash! 8 Cultural Conflicts That Make Us Who We Are. New York: Hudson S.t.
67. Markus HR, Hamedani MG. (2007). Sociocultural psychology: The dynamic interdependence among self systems and social systems. In Handbook of Cultural Psychology, ed. S Kitayama, D Cohen, pp. 3-39. New York
68. Guilford Markus HR, Kitayama S. (2010). Cultures and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 5:420-30
69. Markus HR, Steele CM, Steele DM. (2000). Colorblindness as a barrier to inclusion: Assimilation and nonimmigrant minorities. Daedalus 129:233-59
70. Miller P, Sperry LL. (1987). The socialization of anger and aggression. Merrill-Palmer Q. 33:1-31
71. Miller PJ, Cho GE, Bracey Jr. (2005). Working-class children's experience through the prism of personal storytelling. Hum. Dev. 48:115-35
72. Miller PJ, Sperry DE. (2012). Déja vu: The continuing misrecognition of low-income children's verbal abilities. See Fiske & Markus 2012, pp. 109-30
73. Mills CW. (2002). White Collar: The American Middle Classes. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
74. Moynihan DP. (1965). The Negro Family: The Case for National Action. Washington, DC: Off. Policy Plan. Res., US Dep. Labor
75. Murray P. (2013). Coming Apart: The State of White America, 1960-2010. New York: Crown
76. Oakes J. (1982). Classroom social relationships: Exploring theBowles and Gintis hypothesis. Sociol. Educ. 55:197-212
77. Oishi S, Kesebir S, Diener E. (2011). Income inequality and happiness. Psychol. Sci. 22:1095-100
78. Org. Econ. Coop. Dev. (OECD). (2010). A Family Affair: Intergenerational Social Mobility Across OECD Countries. Paris: OECD. http://www. oecd. org/tax/public-finance/chapter%205%20gfg%202010. pdf
79. Oyserman D, Fryberg S, Yoder N. (2007). Identity-based motivation and health. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 93:1011-27
80. Oyserman D, Markus HR. (1993). The sociocultural self. In The Self in Social Perspective, ed. J. Suls, 7:187-220.
81. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Pascarella ET, Terenzini PT. (1991). How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
82. Pattillo-McCoy M. (1999). Black Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril Among the Black Middle Class. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
83. Phillips M. (2011). Parenting, time wise, and disparities in academic outcomes. See Duncan & Murnane 2011, 10:207-28
84. Phillips M, Chin T. (2004). School inequality: What do we know? In Social Inequality, ed. KM Neckerman, 12:467-519. New York: Sage Found.
85. Pickety T, Saez E. (2003). Income inequality in the United States, 1913-1998. Q. J. Econ. 118:1-39
86. Purdie-Vaughns V, Steele CM, Davies PG, Ditlmann R, Randall-Crosby J. (2008). Social identity contingencies: How diversity cues signal threat or safety for African-Americans in mainstream institutions. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 4:615-30
87. Reardon SF. (2011). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. See Duncan & Murnane 2011, 5:91-116
88. Reay D. (1998). Class Work: Mothers' Involvement in Their Children's Primary Schooling. London: Univ. Coll. Lond. Press
89. Repetti RL, Taylor SE, Seeman TE. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychol. Bull. 128:330-66
90. Ridgeway CL, Fisk SR. (2012). Class rules, status dynamics, and "gateway" interactions. See Fiske & Markus 2012, pp. 131-51
91. Rist R. (1970). Student social class and teacher expectations: The self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education. Harv. Educ. Rev. 40:411-51
92. Rivera L. (2012). Hiring as cultural matching: The case of elite professional service firms. Am. Sociol. Rev. 77:999-1022
93. Saez E. (2010). The Evolution of Top Incomes in the United States (Updated with 2008 Estimates). Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
94. Salzinger L. (2003). Genders in Production: Making Workers in Mexico's Global Factories. Berkeley: Univ. Calif. Press
95. Shah AK, Mullainathan S, Shafir E. (2012). Some consequences of having too little. Science 338:682-85
96. Stephens NM, Fryberg SA, Markus HR. (2011). When choice does not equal freedom: A sociocultural analysis of agency in working-class American contexts. Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. 2:33-41
97. Stephens NM, Fryberg SA, Markus HR. (2012). It's your choice: How the middle-class model of independence disadvantages working-class Americans. See Fiske & Markus 2012, pp. 87-106
98. Stephens NM, Fryberg SA, Markus HR, Johnson C, Covarrubias R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: How American universities' focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 102:1178-97
99. Stephens NM, Hamedani MG, Markus HR, Bergsieker HB, Eloul L. (2009). Why did they "choose" to stay? Perspectives of Hurricane Katrina observers and survivors. Psychol. Sci. 20:878-86
100. Stephens NM, Markus HR, Fryberg SA. (2012). Social class disparities in health and education: Reducing inequality by applying a sociocultural self model of behavior. Psychol. Rev. 119:723-44
101. Stephens NM, Markus HR, Townsend, SSM. (2007). Choice as an act of meaning: The case of social class. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 93:814-30
102. Stephens NM, Townsend SSM. (2013). Rank is not enough: Why we need a sociocultural perspective to understand social class. Psychol. Inq. 24:126-30
103. Stephens NM, Townsend SSM, Markus HR, Phillips LT. (2012). A cultural mismatch: Independent cultural norms produce greater increases in cortisol and more negative emotions among first-generation college students. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 48:1389-93
104. Sutton RI, Hargadon AB. (1996). Brainstorming groups in context: Effectiveness in a product design firm. Admin. Sci. Q. 41:685-718
105. Torlina J. (2011). Working Class: Challenging Myths About Blue-Collar Labor. Boulder, Colo. Lynne Rienner Publ.
106. Tsai JL, Miao FF, Seppala E. (2007). Good feelings in Christianity and Buddhism: Religious differences in ideal affect. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 33:409-21
107. Urtasun A, Ńuñez I. (2012). Work-based competences and careers prospects: A study of Spanish employees. Pers. Rev. 41:428-49
108. Vincent C, Ball SJ. (2007). "Making up" themiddle-class child: Families, activities, and class dispositions. Sociology 41:1061-77
109. Vohs KD, Mead NL, Goode MR. (2006). The psychological consequences of money. Science 314:1154-56
110. Wilkinson RG. (2002). Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality. New York: Routledge
111. Williams JC. (2012). The class culture gap. See Fiske & Markus 2012, pp. 39-58
112. Wilson WJ. (2009). More Than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City (Issues of Our Time). New York
113. Norton Wojcicki S. 2011 (July). The eight pillars of innovation. Think Q. http://www. google. com/think/articles/ 8-pillars-of-innovation. html
114. Wrzesniewski A, Dutton JE. (2001). Crafting a job: Revisioning employees as active crafters of their work. Acad. Manag. Rev. 26:179-201