New skeletons of paleocene-eocene plesiadapiformes: A diversity of arboreal positional behaviors in early primates

PRIMATE ORIGINS: Adaptations and Evolution

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 535-581

  Bloch, J I ^a   Boyer, D M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

^b STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84892050980     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-33507-0_16     Document Type: Chapter

References (133)

1. Anemone, R. L., 1993, Functional anatomy of the hip and thigh among Primates, in: Postcranial Adaptation in Nonhuman Primates, D. Gebo, ed., Northern Illinois University Press, pp. 150-174.
2. Beard, K. C., 1989, Postcranial Anatomy, Locomotor Adaptations, and Paleoecology of Early Cenozoic Plesiadapidae, Paromomyidae, and Micromomyidae (Eutheria, Dermoptera), Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore.
3. Beard, K. C., 1990, Gliding behavior and paleoecology of the alleged primate family Paromomyidae (Mammalia, Dermoptera), Nature 345: 340-341.
4. Beard, K. C., 1991a, Vertical Postures and climbing in the morphotype of Primatomorpha: Implications for locomotor evolution in primate history, in: Origines de la Bipedie chez les Hominides, Y. Coppens and B. Senut, eds., Editions du CNRS (Cahiers de Paleoanthropologie), Paris, pp. 79-87.
5. Beard, K. C., 1991b. Postcranial fossils of the archaic primate family Microsyopidae, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. (Suppl.) 12: 48-49.
6. Beard, K. C., 1993a, Phylogenetic systematics of the Primatomorpha, with special reference to Dermoptera, in: Mammal Phylogeny: Placentals, F. S. Szalay, M. J. Novacek, and M. C. McKenna, eds., Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 129-150.
7. Beard, K. C., 1993b, Origin and evolution of gliding in early Cenozoic Dermoptera (Mammalia, Primatomorpha), in: Primates and their Relatives in Phylogenetic Perspective, R. D. E. MacPhee, ed., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 63-90.
8. Bloch, J. I., 2001, Mammalian Paleontology of freshwater limestones from the Paleocene-Eocene of the Clarks Fork Basin,Wyoming, Ph.D., dissertation, University of Michigan, Department of Geological Sciences, Ann Arbor.
9. Bloch, J. I., and Bowen, G. J., 2001, Paleocene-Eocene microvertebrates in freshwater limestones of the Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, in: Eocene Biodiversity: Unusual Occurrences and Rarely Sampled Habitats, G. F. Gunnell, ed., Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York, pp. 94-129.
10. Bloch, J. I., and Boyer, D. M., 2001, Taphonomy of small mammals in freshwater limestones from the Paleocene of the Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, in: Paleocene-Eocene Stratigraphy and Biotic Change in the Bighorn and Clarks Fork Basins, Wyoming, vol. 33, P. D. Gingerich, ed., University of Michigan Papers on Paleontology, pp. 185-198.
11. Bloch, J. I., and Boyer, D. M., 2002a, Grasping primate origins, Science 298: 1606-1610.
12. Bloch, J. I., and Boyer, D. M., 2002b, Phalangeal morphology of Paleocene Plesiadapiformes (Mammalia: ?Primates): Evaluation of the gliding hypothesis and the first evidence for grasping in a possible primate ancestor, Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 34: 13A.
13. Bloch, J. I., and Boyer, D. M., 2003, Response to comment on "Grasping Primate Origins," Science 300: 741c.
14. Bloch, J. I., Boyer, D. M., and Gingerich, P. D., 2001, Positional behavior of late Paleocene Carpolestes simpsoni (Mammalia ?Primates), J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 21: 34A. Bloch, J. I., Boyer, D. M., Gingerich, P. D., and Gunnell, G. F., 2002a, New primitive paromomyid from the Clarkforkian of Wyoming and dental eruption in Plesiadapiformes, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 22: 366-379.
15. Bloch, J. I., Boyer, D. M., and Houde, P., 2003, New skeletons of Paleocene-Eocene micromomyids (Mammalia, Primates): Functional morphology and implications for euarchontan relationships, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 23: 35A.
16. Bloch, J. I., and Gingerich, P. D., 1998, Carpolestes simpsoni, new species (Mammalia, Proprimates) from the late Paleocene of the Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, Contributions from the museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan 30: 131-162.
17. Bloch, J. I., and Silcox, M. T., 2001, New basicrania of Paleocene-Eocene Ignacius: Re-evaluation of the Plesiadapiform-Dermopteran link, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 116: 184-198.
18. Bloch, J. I., and Silcox, M. T., 2006, Cranial anatomy of the Paleocene plesiadapiform Carpolestes simpsoni (Mammalia, Primates) using ultra high-resolution X-ray computed tomography, and the relationships of plesiadapiforms to Euprimates, J. Hum. Evol. 50: 1-35.
19. Bloch, J. I., Silcox, M. T., Boyer, D. M., and Sargis, E. J., in review, New Paleocene skeletons and the relationship of plesiadapiforms to crown-clade primates.
20. Bloch, J. I., Silcox, M. T., and Sargis, E. J., 2002b, Origin and relationships of Archonta (Mammalia, Eutheria): Re-evaluation of Eudermoptera and Primatomorpha, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 22: 37A. Bowen, G. J., and Bloch, J. I., 2002, Petrography and geochemistry of floodplain limestones from the Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, USA: Carbonate deposition and fossil accumulation on a Paleocene-Eocene floodplain, J. Sediment. Res. 72: 50-62.
21. Bown, T. M., and Beard, K. C., 1990, Systematic lateral variation in the distribution of fossil mammals in alluvial paleosols, lower Eocene Willwood Formation, Wyoming, in: Dawn of the Age of Mammals in the Northern Part of the Rocky Mountain Interior, vol. 243, T. M. Bown and K. D. Rose, eds., Geological Society of America Special Paper, pp. 135-151.
22. Boyer, D. M., and Bloch, J. I., 2000, Documenting dental-postcranial association in Paleocene-Eocene freshwater limestones from the Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 20: 31A.
23. Boyer, D. M., and Bloch, J. I., 2002a, Bootstrap comparisons of vertebral morphology of Paleocene plesiadapiforms (Mammalia ?Primates): Functional implications, Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 34: 13A.
24. Boyer, D. M., and Bloch, J. I., 2002b, Structural correlates of positional behavior in vertebral columns of Paleocene small mammals, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 22: 38A.
25. Boyer, D. M., Bloch, J. I., 2003, Comparative cranial anatomy of the pentacodontid Aphronorus orieli (Mammalia: Pantolesta) from the Paleocene of the Western Crazy Mountains Basin, Montana, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 23: 36A.
26. Boyer, D. M., and Bloch, J. I., in review, Evaluating the mitten-gliding hypothesis for Paromomyidae and Micromomyidae (Mammalia, " Plesiadapiformes") using comparative functional morphology of new Paleogene skeletons, in: Mammalian Evolutionary Morphology, E. J. Sargis and M. Dagosto, eds., Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands
27. Boyer, D. M., Bloch, J. I., and Gingerich, P. D., 2001, New skeletons of Paleocene paromomyids (Mammalia, ?Primates): Were they mitten gliders? J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 21: 35A. Cartmill, M., 1972, Arboreal adaptations and the origin of the order Primates, in: The Functional and Evolutionary Biology of Primates, R. Tuttle, ed., Aldine-Atherton, Chicago, pp. 97-122.
28. Cartmill, M., 1974, Rethinking primate origins, Science 184: 436-443.
29. Cartmill, M., 1992, New views on primate origins, Evol. Anthropol. 1: 105-111.
30. Dagosto, M., 1983, Postcranium of Adapis parisiensis and Leptadapis magnus (Adapiformes, Primates), Folia Primatol. 41: 49-101.
31. Dagosto, M., 1988, Implications of postcranial evidence for the origin of euprimates, J. Hum. Evol. 17: 35-56.
32. Dagosto, M., Gebo, D. L., and Beard, K. C., 1999, Revision of the Wind River faunas, early Eocene of central Wyoming, Part 14, Postcranium of Shoshonius cooperi (Mammalia, Primates), Ann. Carnegie Mus. 61: 1-3.
33. Decker, R. L., and Szalay, F. S., 1974, Origins and function of the pes in the Eocene Adapidae (Lemuriformes, Primates), in: Primate Locomotion, F. A. Jenkins, Jr., ed., Academic Press, New York, pp. 261-291.
34. Emerson, S., 1985, Jumping and leaping, in: Functional Vertebrate Morphology, M. Hildebrand, D. Bramble, K. Liem, and D. Wake, eds., Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp. 58-72.
35. Essner, R. L., and Scheibe, J. S., 2000, A comparison of scapular shape in flying squirrels using relative warp analysis (Rodentia: Sciuridae), in: The Biology of Gliding Mammals, R. Goldingay and J. S. Scheibe, eds., Filander Press, Germany, pp. 213-228.
36. Fleagle, J. G., 1999, Primate Adaptation and Evolution, Academic Press, San Diego.
37. Fleagle, J. G., and Simons, E. L., 1982, The humerus of Aegyptopithecus zeuxis-A primitive anthropoid, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 59: 175-193.
38. Gambaryan, P. P., 1974, How Mammals Run, Wiley, New York.
39. Garber, P. A., 1992, Vertical Clinging, small body size and the evolution of feeding adaptations in the Callitrichinae, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 88: 469-482.
40. Gebo, D. L., 1988, Foot morphology and locomotor adaptation in Eocene primates, Folia Primatol., 50: 3-41.
41. Gebo, D. L., and Sargis, E. J., 1994, Terrestrial adaptations in the postcranial skeletons of guenons, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 93: 341-371.
42. Gidley, J. W., 1923, Paleocene Primates of the Fort Union Formation, with discussion of relationships of Eocene primates, Proc. U.S. Natl. Museum 63: 1-38.
43. Gingerich, P. D., 1974, Function of pointed premolars in Phenacolemur and other mammals, J. Dental Res. 53: 497.
44. Gingerich, P. D., 1975, New North American Plesiadapidae (Mammalia, Primates) and a biostratigraphic zonation of the middle and upper Paleocene, Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan 24: 135-148.
45. Gingerich, P. D., 1976, Cranial anatomy and evolution of early Tertiary Plesiadapidae (Mammalia, Primates), University of Michigan Papers on Paleontology 15: 1-141.
46. Gingerich, P. D., and Gunnell, G. F., 1992, A new skeleton of Plesiadapis cookei, The Display Case: A Quarterly Newsletter of The University of Michigan Exhibit Museum 6: 1-3.
47. Gingerich, P. D., and Gunnell, G. F., 2005, Brain of Plesiadapis cookei (Mammalia, Proprimates): Surface morphology and encephalization compared to those of Primates and Dermoptera, Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan 31: 185-195.
48. Gingerich, P. D., Houde, P., and Krause, D. W., 1983, A new earliest Tiffanian (Late Paleocene) mammalian fauna from Bangtail Plateau, Western Crazy Mountain Basin, Montana, J. Paleontol. 57: 957-970.
49. Godinot, M., and Beard, K. C., 1991, Fossil primate hands: A review and an evolutionary inquiry emphasizing early forms, J. Hum. Evol. 6: 307-354.
50. Gould, E., 1978, The behavior of the moonrat Echinosorex gymnurus (Erinaceidae) and the pentailed tree shrew, Ptilocercus lowii (Tupaiidae) with comments on the behavior of other Insectivora, Z. Tierpsychol 48: 1-27.
51. Grand, T. I., 1968, Functional anatomy of the upper limb, in: Biology of the Howler Monkey (Alouatta caraya), M. R. Malinow, ed., Karger, Basel, pp. 104-125.
52. Gregory, W. K., 1913, Relationship of the Tupaiidae and of Eocene Lemurs, especially Notharctus, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 24: 247-252.
53. Gregory, W. K., 1920, On the structure and relations of Notharctus, an American Eocene primate, Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History 3: 51-243.
54. Gunnell, G. F., 1989, Evolutionary history of Microsyopoidea (Mammalia, ?Primates) and the relationship between Plesiadapiformes and Primates, University of Michigan Papers on Paleontology 27: 1-157.
55. Gunnell, G. F., and Gingerich, P. D., 1987, Skull and partial skeleton of Plesiadapis cookei from the Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 72: 206A. Hamrick, M. W., 1998, Functional adaptive significance of primate pads and claws: Evidence from new world anthropoids, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 106: 113-127.
56. Hamrick, M. W., 2001, Primate origins: Evolutionary change in digit ray patterning and segmentation, J. Hum. Evol. 40: 339-351.
57. Hamrick, M. W., Rosenman, B. A., and Brush, J. A., 1999, Phalangeal morphology of the Paromomyidae (?Primates, Plesiadapiformes): The evidence for gliding behavior reconsidered, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 109: 397-413.
58. Harrison T., 1989, New postcranial remain of Victoriapithecus from the middle Miocene of Kenya, J. Hum. Evol. 18: 3-54.
59. Hooker, J. J., Russell, D. E., and Phélizon, A., 1999, A new family of Plesiadapiformes (Mammalia) from the old world lower Paleogene, Palaeontology 42: 377-407.
60. Horovitz, I., 2000, The tarsus of Ukhaatherium nessovi (Eutheria, Mammalia) from the late Cretaceous of Mongolia: An appraisal of the evolution of the ankle in basal eutherians, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 20: 547-560.
61. Horovitz, I., 2003, Postcranial skeleton of Ukhaatherium nessovi (Eutheria, Mammalia) from the late Cretaceous of Mongolia, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 23: 857-868.
62. Houde, P., 1986, Ostrich ancestors found in the northern hemisphere suggest new hypothesis of ratite origins, Nature 324: 563-565.
63. Houde, P., 1988, Paleognathous birds from the early Tertiary of the northern hemisphere, Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 22: 1-148.
64. Jenkins, F. A., Jr., 1974, Tree shrew locomotion and the origins of primate arborealism, in: Primate Locomotion, F. A. Jenkins, Jr., ed., Academic Press, New York, pp. 85-116.
65. Jenkins, F. A., and McClearn, D., 1984, Mechanisms of hind foot reversal in climbing mammals, J. Morphol. 182: 197-219.
66. Kay, R. F., and Cartmill, M., 1977, Cranial morphology and adaptations of Palaechthon nacimienti and other Paromomyidae (Plesiadapoidea, Primates), with a description of a new genus and species, J. Hum. Evol. 6: 19-53.
67. Kay, R. F., Thewissen, J. G. M., and Yoder, A. D., 1992, Cranial anatomy of Ignacius graybullianus and the affinities of the Plesiadapiformes, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 89: 477-498.
68. Kay, R. F., Thorington, R. W. Jr., and Houde, P., 1990, Eocene plesiadapiform shows affinities with flying lemurs not primates, Nature 345: 342-344.
69. Kinzey W. G., Rosenberger, A. L., and Ramirez, M., 1975, Vertical clinging and leaping in a neotropical anthropoid, Nature 255: 327-328.
70. Kirk, E. C., Cartmill, M., Kay, R. F., and Lemelin, P., 2003, Comment on "Grasping Primate Origins," Science 300: 741.
71. Krause, D. W., 1991, Were paromomyids gliders? Maybe, maybe not, J. Hum. Evol. 21: 177-188.
72. Larson, S. G., 1993, Functional morphology of the shoulder in Primates, in: Postcranial Anatomy of Nonhuman Primates, D. L. Gebo, ed., Northern Illinois University Press DeKalb, pp. 45-69.
73. Le Gros Clark, W. E., 1926, On the anatomy of the pen-tailed tree shrew (Ptilocercus lowii), Proc. Zoolog. Soc. Lond. 1926: 1179-1309.
74. Le Gros Clark, W. E., 1927, Exhibition of photographs of the tree shrew (Tupaia minor), Remarks on the tree shrew Tupaia minor, with photographs, Proc. Zoolog. Soc. Lond. 1927: 254-256.
75. Lemelin, P., 1999, Morphological correlates of substrate use in didelphid marsupials: Implications for primate origins, J. Zoolog. 247: 165-175.
76. Lemelin, P., and Grafton, B., 1998, Grasping performance in Saguinus midas and the evolution of hand prehensility in primates, in: Primate Locomotion, E. Strasser and J. Fleagle, eds., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 131-144.
77. Macleod, N., and Rose, K. D., 1993, Inferring locomotor behavior in Paleogene mammals via eigenshape analysis, Am. J. Sci. 293A: 300-355.
78. Martin, R. D., 1972, Adaptive radiation and behavior of the Malagasy lemurs, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 264: 295-352.
79. Martin, R. D., 1990, Primate Origins and Evolution: A Phylogenetic Reconstruction, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
80. McKenna, M. C., and Bell, S. K., 1997, Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level, Columbia University Press, New York.
81. Miller, M. E., Christensen, G. C., and Evans, H. E., 1964, Anatomy of the Dog, W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia. Napier, J. R., and Walker, A. C., 1967, Vertical clinging and leaping-A newly recognized category of locomotor behavior of primates, Folia Primatolog. 6: 204-219.
82. Rasmussen, D. T., 1990, Primate Origins: Lessons from a neotropical marsupial, Am. J. Primatol. 22: 263-277.
83. Ravosa, M. J., and Savakova, D. G., 2004, Euprimate origins: The eyes have it, J. Hum. Evol. 46: 355-362.
84. Rose, K. D., 1987, Climbing adaptations in the early Eocene mammal Chriacus and the origin of Artiodactyla, Science 236: 314-316.
85. Rose, K. D., 2001, Compendium of Wasatchian mammal postcrania from the Willwood Formation of the Bighorn Basin, in: Paleocene-Eocene Stratigraphy and Biotic Change in the Bighorn and Clarks Fork Basins, Wyoming, Vol. 33, P. D. Gingerich, ed., University of Michigan Papers on Paleontology, pp. 157-183.
86. Rose, K. D., Godinot, M., and Bown, T. M., 1994, The early radiation of euprimates and the initial diversification of Omomyidae, in: Anthropoid Origins, J. G. Fleagle and R. F. Kay, eds., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 1-27.
87. Runestad, J. A., and Ruff, C. B., 1995, Structural adaptations for gliding in mammals with implications for locomotor behavior in paromomyids, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 98: 101-119.
88. Russell, D. E., 1959, Le crane de Plesiadapis. Bulletin de Societé Géologique de France 4: 312-314.
89. Russell, D. E., 1964, Les Mammiféres Paléocéne d'Europe. Mémoires du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, nouvelle série 13: 1-324.
90. Sargis, E. J., 2001a, Grasping behaviour, locomotion and substrate use of the tree shrews Tupaia minor and T. tana (Mammalia, Scandentia), J. Zoolog. 253: 485-490.
91. Sargis, E. J., 2001b, A preliminary qualitative analysis of the axial skeleton of tupaiids (Mammalia, Scandentia): Functional morphology and phylogenetic implications, J. Zoolog. 253: 473-483.
92. Sargis, E. J., 2002a, Functional morphology of the forelimb of tupaiids (Mammalia, Scandentia) and its phylogenetic implications, J. Morphol. 253: 485-490.
93. Sargis, E. J., 2002b, Functional morphology of the hind limb of tupaiids (Mammalia, Scandentia) and its phylogenetic implications, J. Morphol. 254: 149-185.
94. Sargis, E. J., 2002c, The postcranial morphology of Ptilocercus lowii (Scandentia, Tupaiidae): An analysis of primatomorphan and volitantian characters, J. Mamm. Evol. 9: 137-160.
95. Sargis, E. J., 2002d, Primate origins nailed, Science 298: 1564-1565.
96. Scheibe, J. S., and Essner, R. L., 2000, Pelvic shape in gliding rodents: Implications for the launch, in: The Biology of Gliding Mammals, R. Goldingay and J. S. Scheibe, eds., Filander Press, Germany, pp. 167-184.
97. Shapiro, L. J., and Simons, C. V. M., 2002, Functional aspects of strepsirrhine lumbar vertebral bodies and spinous processes, J. Hum. Evol. 42: 753-783.
98. Silcox, M. T., 2001, A Phylogenetic Analysis of Plesiadapiformes and Their Relationships to Euprimates and Other Archontans, Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore.
99. Silcox, M. T., 2003, New discoveries on the middle ear anatomy of Ignacius graybullianus (Paromomyidae, Primates) from ultra high resolution X-ray computed tomography, J. Hum. Evol. 44: 73-86.
100. Silcox, M. T., Bloch, J. I., Sargis, E. J., and Boyer, D. M., 2005, Euarchonta (Dermoptera, Scandentia, Primates), in: The Rise of Placental Mammals, K. D. Rose and J. D. Archibald, eds., The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 127-144.
101. Silcox, M. T., and Gunnell, G. F. (in press). Plesiadapiformes, in: Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America, vol. 2, C. M. Janis, G. F. Gunnell, and M. D. Uhen, eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
102. Simmons, N. B., 1995, Bat relationships and the origin of flight, Symp. Zoolog. Soc. Lond. 67: 27-43.
103. Simmons, N. B., and Quinn, T. H., 1994, Evolution of the digital tendon locking mechanism in bats and dermopterans: A phylogenetic perspective, J. Mamm. Evol. 2: 231-254.
104. Simons, E. L., 1972, Primate Evolution: An Introduction to Man's Place in Nature, The Macmillan Company, New York.
105. Simpson, G. G., 1935a, The Tiffany fauna, Upper Paleocene. II. Structure and relationships of Plesiadapis, American Museum Novitates 816: 1-30.
106. Simpson, G. G., 1935b, The Tiffany fauna, Upper Paleocene. III. Primates, Carnivora, Condylarthra, and Ambylpoda, American Museum Novitates 817: 1-28.
107. Simpson, G. G., 1935c, New Paleocene mammals from the Fort Union of Montana, Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus. 83: 221-244.
108. Stafford, B. J., 1999, Taxonomy and Ecological Morphology of the Flying Lemurs (Dermoptera, Cynocephalidae), Ph.D. dissertation, City University of New York, New York.
109. Stafford, B. J., and Thorington, R. W., 1998, Carpal development and morphology in archontan mammals, J. Morphol. 235: 135-155.
110. Sussman, R. W., and Kinzey, W. G., 1984, The ecological role of the Callitrichidae: A review, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 64: 419-449.
111. Szalay, F. S., 1968, The beginnings of primates, Evolution 22: 19-36.
112. Szalay, F. S., 1972, Paleobiology of the earliest primates, in: The Functional and Evolutionary Biology of Primates, R. H. Tuttle, ed., Aldine-Atherton, Chicago, pp. 3-35.
113. Szalay, F. S., 1973, New Paleocene primates and a diagnosis of the new suborder Paromomyiformes, Folia Primatolog. 22: 243-250.
114. Szalay, F. S., 1975, Where to draw the nonprimate-primate taxonomic boundary, Folia Primatolog. 23: 158-163.
115. Szalay, F. S., and Dagosto, M., 1980, Locomotor adaptations as reflected on the humerus of Paleogene Primates, Folia Primatolog. 34: 1-45.
116. Szalay, F. S., and Dagosto, M., 1988, Evolution of hallucial grasping in primates, J. Hum. Evol. 17: 1-33.
117. Szalay, F. S., and Decker, R. L., 1974, Origins, evolution, and function of the tarsus in late Cretaceous Eutheria and Paleocene Primates, in: Primate Locomotion, F. A. Jenkins, ed., Academic Press, New York, pp. 223-359.
118. Szalay, F. S., and Drawhorn, G., 1980, Evolution and diversification of the Archonta in an arboreal milieu, in: Comparative Biology and Evolutionary Relationships of Tree Shrews, W. P. Luckett, ed., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 133-169.
119. Szalay, F. S., and Lucas, S. G., 1993, Cranioskeletal morphology of Archontans, and diagnoses of Chiroptera, Volitantia, and Archonta, in: Primates and Their Relatives in a Phylogenetic Perspective, R. D. E. MacPhee, ed., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 187-226.
120. Szalay, F. S., and Lucas, S. G., 1996, The postcranial morphology of Paleocene Chriacus and Mixodectes and the phylogenetic relationships of archontan mammals, New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science Bulletin 7: 1-47.
121. Szalay, F. S., Rosenberger, A. L., and Dagosto, M., 1987, Diagnosis and differentiation of the order Primates, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 30: 75-105.
122. Szalay F. S., and Sargis, E. J., 2001, Model-based analysis of postcranial osteology of marsupials from the Paleocene of Itaborai (Brazil) and the phylogenetics and biogeography of Metatheria, Geodiversitas 23: 139-302.
123. Szalay, F. S., and Schrenk, F., 2001, An enigmatic new mammal (Dermoptera?) from the Messel middle Eocene, Germany, Darmstadter Beitrage Zur Naturgeschichte 11: 153-164.
124. Szalay, F. S., Tattersall, I., and Decker, R. L., 1975, Phylogenetic relationships of Plesiadapis-Postcranial evidence, in: Approaches to Primate Paleobiology, F. S. Szalay, ed., Karger, Basel, pp. 136-166.
125. Taylor, M. E., 1976, The functional anatomy of the hindlimb of some African Viverridae (Carnivora). J. Morphol. 148: 227-254.
126. Thorington, R. W., and Heaney, L. R., 1981, Body proportions and gliding adaptations of flying squirrels (Petauristinae), J. Mamm. 62: 101-114.
127. Thorington, R. W., Schennum, C.E., Pappas, L. A., and Pitassy, D., 2005, The difficulties of identifying flying squirrels (Scuiridae: Pteromyini) in the fossil record, J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 25: 950-961.
128. Van Valen, L. M., 1994, The origin of the plesiadapid primates and the nature of Purgatorius, Evolutionary Monographs 15: 1-79.
129. Vinyard, C. J., Wall, C. E., Williams, S. H., and Hylander, W. L., 2003, Comparative functional analyses of skull morphology of tree-gouging primates, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 120: 153-170.
130. Walker, A. C., 1974, Locomotor adaptations in past and present prosimian primates, in: Primate locomotion, F. A. Jenkins, Jr., ed., Academic Press, New York, pp. 349-381.
131. Wible, J. R., and Covert, H. H., 1987, Primates-cladistic diagnosis and relationships, J. Hum. Evol. 16: 1-22.
132. Winkler, D. A., 1983, Paleoecology of an early Eocene mammalian fauna from paleosols in the Clarks Fork Basin, northwestern Wyoming (USA), Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 43: 261-298.
133. Youlatos, D., 1999, Positional behavior of Cebuella pygmaea in Yasuni national National Park, Ecuador, Primates 40: 543-550.