Digestive flexibility during fasting in fish: A review

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - A Molecular and Integrative Physiology

Volumn 169, Issue , 2014, Pages 7-14

  Zaldúa, Natalia ^a   Naya, Daniel E ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDAD DE LA REPÚBLICA   (Uruguay)

Author keywords

Digestive ecology; Gut; Organ size; Phenotypic plasticity; Physiological flexibility

Indexed keywords

AMPHIBIA; DIET RESTRICTION; DIGESTIVE FLEXIBILITY; DIGESTIVE FUNCTION; DOWN REGULATION; FISH; HISTOLOGY; HOMEOSTASIS; INTESTINE SIZE; NONHUMAN; ORGAN SIZE; PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY; REPTILE; REVIEW; TETRAPOD; TURNOVER TIME; ADAPTATION; ANIMAL; CYTOLOGY; ENERGY METABOLISM; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; INTESTINE MUCOSA; PHENOTYPE; PHYSIOLOGY;

AMPHIBIA; ANIMALIA; AVES; MAMMALIA; REPTILIA; VERTEBRATA;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ANIMALS; ENERGY METABOLISM; FASTING; FISHES; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; INTESTINAL MUCOSA; ORGAN SIZE; PHENOTYPE;

EID: 84891141465     PISSN: 10956433     EISSN: 15314332     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2013.12.006     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Addo-Bediako A., Chown S.L., Gaston K.J. Thermal tolerance, climatic variability and latitude. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 2000, 267:739-745.
2. Agrawal A.A. Induced responses to herbivory and increased plant performance. Science 1998, 279:1201-1202.
3. Attaix D., Meslin J.C. Changes in small intestinal mucosa morphology and cell renewal in suckling, prolonged-suckling and weaned lambs. Am. J. Physiol. 1991, 261:R811-R818.
4. Bacigalupe L.D., Nespolo R.F., Opazo J.C., Bozinovic F. Phenotypic flexibility in a novel thermal environment: phylogenetic inertia in thermogenic capacity and evolutionary adaptation in organ size. Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 2004, 77:805-815.
5. Baeverfjord G., Krogdahl A. Development and regression of soybean meal induced enteritis in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., distal intestine: a comparison with the intestines of fasted fish. J. Fish Dis. 1996, 19:375-387.
6. Bélanger F., Blier P.U., Dutil J.D. Digestive capacity and compensatory growth in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Fish Physiol. Biochem. 2002, 26:121-128.
7. Blier P.U., Dutil J.D., Lemieux H., Belanger F., Bitetera L. Phenotypic flexibility of digestive system in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2007, 146:174-179.
8. Boge G., Rigal A., Peres G. A study of in vivo glycine absorption by fed and fasted rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol. 1981, 91:285-290.
9. Brommer J.E., Rattiste K., Wilson A.J. Exploring plasticity in the wild: laying date-temperature reaction norms in the common gull Larus canus. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 2007, 275:687-693.
10. Buddington R.K., Chen J.W., Diamond J. Genetic and phenotypic adaptation of intestinal nutrient transport to diet in fish. J. Physiol. 1987, 393:261-281.
11. Burrin D.G., Britton R.A., Ferrell C.L. Visceral organ size and hepatocyte metabolic activity in fed and fasted rats. J. Nutr. 1988, 118:1547-1552.
12. Callahan H.S., Wells C.L., Pigliucci M. Light-sensitive plasticity genes in Arabidopsis thaliana: mutant analysis and ecological genetics. Evol. Ecol. Res. 1999, 1:731-751.
13. Calosi P., Bilton D.T., Spicer J.I. Thermal tolerance, acclimatory capacity and vulnerability to global climate change. Biol. Lett. 2008, 4:99-102.
14. Carey H.V. Seasonal change in mucosal structure and function in ground squirrel intestine. Am. J. Physiol. 1990, 28:R385-R392.
15. Carey H.V. Gastrointestinal response to fasting in mammals: lessons from hibernators. Physiological and Ecological Adaptation to Feeding in Vertebrates 2005, 229-254. Science Publishers, New Hampshire. J.M. Starck, T. Wang (Eds.).
16. Castle K.T., Wunder B.A. Limits to food intake and fiber utilization in the prairie vole, Microtus ochrogaster: effects of food quality and energy need. J. Comp. Physiol. B. 1995, 164:609-617.
17. Christel C.M., DeNardo D.F., Secor S.M. Metabolic and digestive response to food ingestion in a binge-feeding lizard, the Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum). J. Exp. Biol. 2007, 210:3430-3439.
18. Cox C.L., Secor S.M. Matched regulation of gastrointestinal performance in the Burmese python, Python molurus. J. Exp. Biol. 2008, 211:1131-1140.
19. Cramp R.L., Franklin C.E. Arousal and re-feeding rapidly restores digestive tract morphology following aestivation in green-striped borrowing frogs. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2005, 142:451-460.
20. Cramp R.L., Franklin C.E., Meyer E.A. The impact of prolonged fasting during aestivation on the structure of the small intestine in the green-striped burrowing frog, Cyclorana alboguttata. Acta Zool. 2005, 86:13-24.
21. Denver R.J., Mirhadi N., Phillips M. Adaptative plasticity in amphibians metamorphosis: response of Scaphiopus hammondii tadpoles to habitat desiccation. Ecology 1998, 76:1859-1872.
22. Deutsch C.A., Tewksbury J.J., Huey R.B., Sheldon K.S., Ghalambor C.K., Haak D.C., Martin P.R. Impacts of climate warming on terrestrial ectotherms across latitude. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2008, 105:6668-6672.
23. DeWitt T.J., Scheiner S.M. Phenotypic plasticity. Functional and Conceptual Approaches 2004, Oxford University Press.
24. Domeneghini C., Radaelli G., Bosi G., Arrighi S., Di Giancamillo A., Pazzaglia M., Mascarello F. Morphological and histochemical differences in the structure of the alimentary canal in feeding and runt (feed deprived) white sturgeons (Acipenser transmontanus). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 2002, 18:341-346.
25. Dunel-Erb S., Chevalier S., Laurent P., Bach A., Decrock F., Le Maho Y. Restoration of the jejunal mucosa in rats refed after prolonged fasting. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2001, 129:933-947.
26. Ferraris R.P., Diamond J.M. Crypt/villus site of substrate-dependent regulation of mouse intestinal glucose transporters. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1993, 90:5868-5872.
27. Garland T., Kelly S.A. Phenotypic plasticity and experimental evolution. J. Exp. Biol. 2006, 209:2344-2361.
28. Gas N., Noailliac-Depeyre J. Studies on intestinal epithelium involution during prolonged fasting. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 1976, 56:137-151.
29. Gaucher L., Vidal N., D'Anatro A., Naya D.E. Digestive flexibility during fasting in the characid fish Hyphessobrycon luetkenii. J. Morphol. 2012, 273:49-56.
30. German D.P., Horn M.H., Gawlicka A. Digestive enzyme activities in herbivorous and carnivorous prickleback fishes (Teleostei: Stichaeidae): ontogenetic, dietary, and phylogenetic effects. Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 2004, 77:789-804.
31. German D.P., Neuberger D.T., Callahan M.N., Lizardo N.R., Evans D.H. Feast to famine: the effects of food quality and quantity on the gut structure and function of a detritivorous catfish (Teleostei: Loricariidae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2010, 155:281-293.
32. Gianoli E., Valladares F. Studying phenotypic plasticity: the advantages of a broad approach. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 2012, 105:1-7.
33. Gwack W.-S., Seikai T., Tanaka M. Evaluation of starvation status of laboratory-reared Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus larvae and juveniles based on morphological and histological characteristics. Fish. Sci. 1999, 65:339-346.
34. Habold C., Reichardt F., Foltzer-Jourdainne C., Lignot J.H. Morphological changes of the rat intestinal lining in relation to body stores depletion during fasting and after refeeding. Pflugers Arch.-Eur. J. Physiol. 2007, 455:323-332.
35. Hall K.C., Bellwood D.R. Histological effects of cyanide, stress and starvation on the intestinal mucosa of Pomacentrus coelestis, a marine aquarium fish species. J. Fish Biol. 1995, 47:438-454.
36. Hall P.A., Coates P.J., Ansari B., Hopwood D. Regulation of cell number in the mammalian gastrointestinal tract: the importance of apoptosis. J. Cell Sci. 1994, 107:3569-3577.
37. Hammond K.A., Konarzewski M., Torres R., Diamond J.M. Metabolic ceiling under a combination of peak energy demands. Physiol. Zool. 1994, 67:1479-1506.
38. Hammond K.A., Lam M., Lloyd K.C.K., Diamond J. Simultaneous manipulation of intestinal capacities and nutrient loads in mice. Am. J. Physiol. 1996, 271:G696-G979.
39. Hellberg J., Bjerkas I. Intestinal epithelium in Anarhichas lupus L., with emphasis on cell renewal. J. Fish Biol. 2005, 66:1342-1356.
40. Hume I.D., Beiglbock C., Ruf T., Frey-Roos F., Bruns U., Arnold W. Seasonal changes in morphology and function of the gastrointestinal tract of free-living alpine marmots (Marmota marmota). J. Comp. Physiol. B. 2002, 172:197-207.
41. Jackson K., Perry G. Changes in intestinal morphology following feeding in the brown treesnake, Boiga irregularis. J. Herpetol. 2000, 34:459-462.
42. Jobling M. Effects of starvation on proximate chemical composition and energy utilization of plaice, Pleuronectes platessa L. J. Fish Biol. 1980, 17:325-334.
43. Ju J.S., Nasset E.S. Changes in total nitrogen content of some abdominal viscera in fasting and realimentation. J. Nutr. 1959, 68:633-645.
44. Karasov W.H., Diamond J.M. Adaptive regulation of sugar and amino acid transport by vertebrate intestine. Am. J. Physiol. 1983, 8:G443-G462.
45. Karasov W.H., McWilliams S.R. Digestive constraint in mammalian and avian ecology. Physiological and Ecological Adaptation to Feeding in Vertebrates 2005, 87-112. Science Publishers, New Hampshire. J.M. Starck, T. Wang (Eds.).
46. Karasov W.H., Martínez del Rio C., Caviedes-Vidal E. Ecological physiology of diet and digestive systems. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2011, 73:69-93.
47. Kristan D.M., Hammond K.A. Parasite infection and caloric restriction induce physiological and morphological plasticity. Am. J. Physiol. 2001, 281:R502-R510.
48. Kristan D.M., Hammond K.A. Physiological and morphological responses to simultaneous cold exposure and parasite infection by wild-derived house mice. Funct. Ecol. 2003, 17:464-471.
49. Krogdahl A., Bakke-McKellep A.M. Fasting and refeeding cause rapid changes in intestinal tissue mass and digestive enzyme capacities of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2005, 141:450-460.
50. Krol E., Murphy M., Speakman J.R. Limits to sustained energy intake. X. Effects of fur removal on reproductive performance in laboratory mice. J. Exp. Biol. 2007, 210:4233-4243.
51. Lee W.B., Houston D.C. Digestive efficiency and gut adaptation in voles. J. Zool. (Lond.) 1994, 234:683-685.
52. Lignot J.H., Helmstetter C., Secor S.M. Postprandial morphological response of the intestinal epithelium of the Burmese python (Python molurus). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2005, 141:280-291.
53. Liu Q.S., Wang D.H. Effects of diet quality on phenotypic flexibility of organ size and digestive function in Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). J. Comp. Physiol. B. 2007, 175:31-36.
54. Loeb S.C., Schwab R.G., Demment M.W. Responses of pocket ghophers (Thomomys bottae) to changes in diet quality. Oecologia 1991, 86:542-551.
55. Mayhew T.M., Myklebust R., Whybrow A., Jenkins R. Epithelial integrity, cell death and cell loss in mammalian small intestine. Histol. Histopathol. 1999, 14:257-267.
56. McCue M.D. Starvation physiology: reviewing the different strategies animals use to survive a common challenge. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2010, 156:1-18.
57. McLeese J.M., Moon T.W. Seasonal changes in the intestinal mucosa of winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus (Walbaum), from Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick. J. Fish Biol. 1989, 35:381-393.
58. McLeod M.G. Effects of salinity and starvation on the alimentary canal anatomy of the rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri Richardson. J. Fish Biol. 1978, 12:71-79.
59. McManus J.P.A., Isselbacher K.J. Effect of fasting versus feeding on the rat small intestine. Gastroenterology 1970, 59:214-221.
60. McWhorter T.J., Caviedes-Vidal E., Karasov W.H. The integration of digestion and osmoregulation in the avian gut. Biol. Rev. 2009, 84:533-565.
61. McWilliams S.R., Karasov W.H. Phenotypic flexibility in digestive system structure and function in migratory birds and its ecological significance. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2001, 128:579-593.
62. Molina-Montenegro M.A., Naya D.E. Latitudinal patterns in phenotypic plasticity and fitness-related traits: assessing the climatic variability hypothesis with an invasive plant species. PLoS ONE 2012, e47620.
63. Montgomery W.L., Pollak P.E. Gut anatomy and pH in a Red Sea surgeonfish Acanthurus nigrofuscus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1988, 44:7-13.
64. Naya D.E., Bozinovic F. Phenotypic flexibility in post-metamorphic amphibians: studies of a model organism. Biol. Res. 2004, 37:365-370.
65. Naya D.E., Bozinovic F. The role of ecological interactions on the physiological flexibility of lizards. Funct. Ecol. 2006, 20:601-608.
66. Naya D.E., Bacigalupe L.D., Bustamante D.M., Bozinovic F. Dynamic digestive strategies in response to increased energy demands: a study in the leaf-eared mouse. J. Comp. Physiol. B. 2005, 175:31-36.
67. Naya D.E., Farfat G., Mendez M., Bozinovic F., Sabat P. Digestive performance in the Andean toad Bufo spinulosus: flexibility or hard-wired physiology?. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2005, 140:165-170.
68. Naya D.E., Karasov W.H., Bozinovic F. Phenotypic plasticity in laboratory mice and rats: a meta-analysis of current ideas on gut size flexibility. Evol. Ecol. Res. 2007, 9:1363-1374.
69. Naya D.E., Bozinovic F., Karasov W.H. Latitudinal trends in physiological flexibility: testing the climatic variability hypothesis with data on the intestinal length of rodents. Am. Nat. 2008, 172:E122-E134.
70. Naya D.E., Veloso C., Bozinovic F. Physiological flexibility in the Andes ranges: seasonal changes in organs size and metabolic rate in the lizard Liolaemus bellii. J. Comp. Physiol. B. 2008, 178:1007-1015.
71. Naya D.E., Veloso C., Sabat P., Bozinovic F. The effect of long- and short-term fasting on phenotypic flexibility and integration in the Andean toad, Bufo spinulosus. J. Exp. Biol. 2009, 212:2167-2175.
72. Naya D.E., Veloso C., Sabat P., Bozinovic F. Physiological flexibility in the hibernating Andean lizard Liolaemus nigroviridis. J. Exp. Zool. A 2009, 311:270-277.
73. Naya D.E., Veloso C., Sabat P., Bozinovic F. Seasonal flexibility in organ size in an Andean lizard species. J. Morphol. 2010, 271:1440-1445.
74. Naya D.E., Spangenberg L., Naya H., Bozinovic F. Latitudinal patterns in rodent metabolic flexibility. Am. Nat. 2012, 179:E172-E179.
75. Nieto Garcia M., Johnson H.A. Cell proliferation kinetics in goldfish acclimated to various temperatures. Cell Tissue Kinet. 1972, 5:331-339.
76. Nussey D.H., Postma E., Gienapp P., Visser M.E. Selection on heritable phenotypic plasticity in a wild bird population. Science 2005, 310:304-306.
77. O'Brien L.E., Soliman S.S., Li X., Bilder D. Altered modes of stem cell division drive adaptive intestinal growth. Cell 2011, 147:603-614.
78. Ott B.D., Secor S.M. Adaptive regulation of digestive performance in the genus Python. J. Exp. Biol. 2007, 210:340-356.
79. Pennisi E. The dynamic gut. Science 2005, 307:1896-1899.
80. Piersma T., Drent J. Phenotypic flexibility and the evolution of organismal design. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2003, 18:228-233.
81. Piersma T., Lindstrom A. Rapid reversible changes in organ size as a component of adaptative behaviour. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1997, 12:134-138.
82. Piersma T., van Gils J.A. The flexible phenotype. A Body-centred Integrative of Ecology, Physiology and Behaviour 2010, Oxford University Press.
83. Pigliucci M. Phenotypic Plasticity: Beyond Nature and Nurture 2001, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
84. Pigliucci M., Schmitt J. Genes affecting phenotypic plasticity in Arabidopsis: pleiotropic effect and reproductive fitness of photomorphogenic mutants. J. Evol. Biol. 1999, 12:551-552.
85. Relyea R.A. Predators come and predators go: the reversibility of predator-induced traits. Ecology 2003, 84:1840-1848.
86. Rios F.S., Kalinin A.L., Fernandes M.N., Rantin F.T. Changes in gut gross morphology of traira, Hoplias malabaricus (Teleostei, Erythrinidae) during long-term starvation and after refeeding. Braz. J. Biol. 2004, 64:683-689.
87. Rodriguez A., Gisbert E., Castelló-Orvay F. Nutritional condition of Anguilla anguilla starved at various salinities during the elver phase. J. Fish Biol. 2005, 67:521-534.
88. Scheiner S.M. Genetics and evolution of phenotypic plasticity. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1993, 24:35-68.
89. Scheiner S.M. Selection experiments and the study of phenotypic plasticity. J. Evol. Biol. 2002, 15:889-898.
90. Schlichting C.D. The evolution of phenotypic plasticity in plants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1986, 17:667-693.
91. Schlichting C.D., Pigliucci M. Phenotypic evolution. A Reaction Norm Perspective 1998, Sinauer Associates Inc.
92. Secor S.M. Regulation of digestive performance: a proposed adaptive response. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2001, 128:565-577.
93. Secor S.M. Evolutionary and cellular mechanism regulating intestinal performance of amphibians and reptiles. Integr. Comp. Biol. 2005, 45:282-294.
94. Secor S.M. Physiological responses to feeding, fasting and estivation for anurans. J. Exp. Biol. 2005, 208:2595-2608.
95. Secor S.M. Digestive physiology of the Burmese python: broad regulation of integrated performance. J. Exp. Biol. 2008, 211:3767-3774.
96. Secor S.M., Diamond J.M. A vertebrate model of extreme physiological regulation. Nature 1998, 395:659-662.
97. Secor S.M., Diamond J.M. Maintenance of digestive performance in turtles Chelydra serpentina, Sternotherus odoratus, and Trachemys scripta. Copeia 1999, 1999:75-84.
98. Secor S.M., Diamond J.M. Evolution of regulatory responses to feeding in snakes. Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 2000, 73:123-141.
99. Secor S.M., Whang E.E., Lane J.S., Ashley S.W., Diamond J.M. Luminal and systemic signals trigger intestinal adaptation in the juvenile python. Am. J. Physiol. 2000, 279:G1177-G1187.
100. Segner H., Braunbeck T. Hepatocellular adaptation to extreme nutritional conditions in ide, Leuciscus idus melanotus L. (Cyprinidae). A morphological analysis. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 1988, 5:79-97.
101. Sibly R.M. Strategies of digestion and defecation. Physiological Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach to Resource Use 1981, 109-139. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. C.R. Towsend, P. Calow (Eds.).
102. Simpkins D.G., Hubert W.A., Martínez del Rio C., Rule D.C. Physiological responses of juvenile rainbow trout to fasting and swimming activity: effects on body composition and condition indices. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 2003, 132:576-589.
103. Smith H. Phytochromes and light signal perception by plants-an emerging synthesis. Nature 2000, 407:585-591.
104. Speakman J.R., Krol E. Limits to sustained energy intake IX: a review of hypotheses. J. Comp. Physiol. B. 2005, 175:375-394.
105. Starck J.M. Intestinal growth in altricial European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and precocial Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Acta Anat. 1996, 156:289-306.
106. Starck J.M. Structural flexibility of the gastro-intestinal tract of vertebrates-implications for evolutionary morphology. Zool. Anz. 1999, 238:87-101.
107. Starck J.M. Phenotypic flexibility of the avian gizzard: rapid, reversible and repeated changes of organ size in response to changes in dietary fibre content. J. Exp. Biol. 1999, 202:3171-3179.
108. Starck J.M. Structural flexibility of the digestive system of tetrapods-patterns and process at the cellular and tissue level. Physiological and Ecological Adaptation to Feeding in Vertebrates 2005, 175-200. Science Publishers, New Hampshire. J.M. Starck, T. Wang (Eds.).
109. Starck J.M., Beese K. Structural flexibility of the intestine of Burmese python in response to feeding. J. Exp. Biol. 2001, 204:325-335.
110. Starck J.M., Beese K. Structural flexibility of the small intestine and liver of garter snakes in response to feeding and fasting. J. Exp. Biol. 2002, 205:1377-1388.
111. Starck J.M., Wimmer C. Patterns of blood flow during the postprandial response in ball pythons, Python regius. J. Exp. Biol. 2005, 208:881-889.
112. Starck J.M., Cruz-Neto A.P., Abe A.S. Physiological and morphological responses to feeding in broad-nosed caiman (Caiman latirostris). J. Exp. Biol. 2007, 210:2033-2045.
113. Steiner M., Bourges H.R., Freedman L.S., Gray S.J. Effect of starvation on the tissue composition of the small intestine in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 1968, 215:75-77.
114. Stillman J.H., Somero G.N. A comparative analysis of the upper thermal tolerance limits of Eastern Pacific porcelain crabs, genus Petrolisthes: influences of latitude, vertical zonation, acclimation, and phylogeny. Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 2000, 73:200-208.
115. Stomp M., van Dijk M.A., van Overzee H.M.J., Wortel M.T., Sigon C.A.M., Egas M., Hoogveld H., Gons H.J., Huisman J. The timescale of phenotypic plasticity and Its Impact on competition in fluctuating environments. Am. Nat. 2008, 172:E169-E175.
116. Stroband H.W.J., Debets F.M.H. The ultrastructure and renewal of the intestinal epithelium of the juvenile grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella. Cell Tissue Res. 1978, 187:181-200.
117. Thomson A.B.R., Cheeseman C.I., Keelan M., Fedorak R., Clandinin M.T. Crypt cell production rate, enterocyte turnover time and appearance of transport along the jejunal villus of the rat. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1994, 1191:197-204.
118. Toloza E.M., Lam M., Diamond J.M. Nutrient extraction by cold-exposed mice: a test of digestive safety margins. Am. J. Physiol. 1991, 261:G608-G620.
119. Tracy C.R., Diamond J. Regulation of gut function varies with life-history traits in chuckwallas (Sauromalus obesus: Iguanidae). Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 2005, 78:469-481.
120. Trier J.S., Moxey P.C. Epithelial cell proliferation in the intestine of the winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus. Cell Tissue Res. 1980, 206:379-385.
121. Valladares F., Sanchez-Gomez D., Zavala M.A. Quantitative estimation of phenotypic plasticity: bridging the gap between the evolutionary concept and its ecological applications. J. Ecol. 2006, 94:1103-1116.
122. Vickers T. A study of the intestinal epithelium of the goldfish Carassius auratus: its normal structure, the dynamics of cell replacement, and the changes induced by salts of cobalt and manganese. Q. J. Microsc. Sci. 1962, 130:93-110.
123. Wang T., Hung C.C.Y., Randall D.J. The comparative physiology of food deprivation: from feast to famine. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2006, 68:223-251.
124. Weatherley A.H., Gill H.S. Recovery growth following periods of restricted rations and starvation in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri Richardson. J. Fish Biol. 1981, 18:195-208.
125. Williamson R.C.N., Chir M. Intestinal adaptation-structural, functional and cytokinetic changes. N. Engl. J. Med. 1978, 298:1393-1402.
126. Withman D.W., Ananthakrishnan T.N. Phenotypic plasticity in insects. Mechanism and Consequences 2009, Science Publishers, Enfield, USA.
127. Young Owl M., Batzli G.O. The integrated processing response of voles to fibre content of natural diets. Funct. Ecol. 1998, 12:4-13.
128. Zeng L.-Q., Li F.J., Fu S.-J., Cao Z.-D., Zhang Y.-G. Effect of feeding on the functional and structure of the digestive system in juvenile southern catfish (Silurus meridionalis Chen). Fish Physiol. Biochem. 2012, 38:1459-1475.
129. Zeng L.-Q., Li F.-J., Li X.-M., Cao Z.-D., Fu S.-J., Zhang Y.-G. The effect of starvation on digestive tract function and structure in juvenile southern catfish (Silurus meridionalis Che). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 2012, 162:200-211.