Energizing Our Future: Rational Choices for the 21st Century

Energizing Our Future: Rational Choices for the 21st Century

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-390

  Wilson, John R ^a   Burgh, Griffin ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84890773543     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470225066     Document Type: Book

References (236)

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47. See for example http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/pubs_html/attf94_v2/appd_d.html and related chapters and appendices, especially Note 22.
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69. See also an article by Kenneth Chang in The New York Times November 4, 2003 that reports on Dr. Hoffert's work.
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71. DeWeese, Tom. December 16, 2004. http://www.newswithviews.com/DeWeese/tom23.htm.
72. Although oxides of nitrogen are possible when combustion of hydrogen takes place in air.
73. 1 barrel (bbl) of oil or oil products=42 U.S. gallons and 1 U.S. gallon of typical crude oil weighs 7 lb.
74. 1 bbl gasoline=42 gallons and 1 gallon of gasoline weighs 6 lb.
75. 3mt _ 2204 lbs.=6.612 billion pounds/8.33 pounds per gallon/20,000 gal.=39,687 pools daily.
76. http://www.chinaonline.com/refer/ministry_profiles/threegorgesdam.asp.
77. Coal coke is the solid residue left by the destructive distillation of coal in the absence of air.
78. Petroleum coke is the solid residue left by the complete distillation of crude oil. It is made in two forms, depending on the refining technology used - delayed coke and fluid coke. Fluid coke consists of small coke particles that are easily fluidized, as in Exxon's Flexicoking process.
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81. "POX gas" is made by the partial combustion of hydrocarbons or even coal under closely controlled conditions using substoichiometric combustion oxygen. Shell and Texaco, among others, offer this technology. The product gas consists primarily of CO and hydrogen.
82. We disagree - after a 3-year review of the data supposedly supporting the carbon dioxide model of global warming, we have concluded that GW is due primarily to a steady increase in water vapor that began almost two centuries ago and that the very small increases in CO2 concentration have provided a secondary overlay of additional warming effects since about 1950.
83. See our papers on global warming at www.tmgtech.com.
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86. See, for example, http://www.eia.dcloe.gov/oil_gas/natural_gas/info_glance/natural_gas.html.
87. See, for example, http://www.nrel.gov/education/pdfs/k_varner.pdf and other sources.
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89. We will be fortunate if "Big Oil" does control any future hydrogen economy. At the time this is being written (early 2004). "Big Oil" does not consider hydrogen to be a viable business opportunity. We agree it is not, but such things have been known to change. If that happens, those who so blindly promote the "hydrogen economy" today will have the problem faced by the dog who finally catches the car-"What do I do now?", and none of them have any idea. If hydrogen makes sense as an energy medium, the existing energy industry is best equipped among us by far to deal with it.
90. See, for example, http://www.rmi.org/images/other/E-20HydrogenMyths.pdf. This model is reminiscent of Chairman Mao's failed "A blast furnace in every back yard" policy of 1958.
91. The updated paper by Bossel, Eliasson and Taylor can be found at: http://www.efcf.com/reports/ E08.pdf.
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93. The Compressibility of the liquids is ignored in this very approximate estimation.
94. Association of oil pipelines. Shifts in Petroleum Transportation. May 2002.
95. Lessing PA, Yang Y, Ma LP, Chen FC, Shrotriya V, Sirosh N, and Warner MJ. Low permeation liner for hydrogen gas storage tanks. DOE Annual Hydrogen Program Review Berkeley. CA, (presentation), May 20, 2003.
96. Weisberg AH, Mayers, Blake. Next generation hydrogen storage. DOE Annual Hydrogen Program Review Philadelphia, PA, May 25, 2004 (presentation).
97. National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council, 2004. The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
98. Liquid hydrogen freezes at _259C. The density of the solid is about 9% greater than that of the liquid.
99. For a brief account, see http://irtek.arc.nasa.gov/ZBO_Page/ZBOapproach.html.
100. http://www.praxair.com/praxair.nsf/0/b038cf0b757ed257852567c1004f0069/$FILE/p4603e.pdf, last accessed September 6, 2004.
101. A surprisingly large proportion, perhaps 20%, of the current U.S. vehicle fleet sees very little use - perhaps once weekly to once monthly.
102. See, for example, Bennett PD, Sakai T. Hydrogen and metal hydride batteries. The Electrochemical Society, Proceedings Series #94, 1995. 456 pp. There are many books and symposium volumes available on this topic.
103. This can quickly be determined from an examination of the very extensive literature on the relevant metal-hydrogen binary and ternary systems-see, for example, the various editions and supplements to Hansen M., 1958 and later. "Constitution of Binary Alloys", McGraw-Hill, New York. Also the noted work by Smith DP. Hydrogen in metals. Chicago: Chicago University Press; 1948.
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107. Massalski TB, Okamoto, H. Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams. 2nd ed., ASM International; 1990.
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112. Some have even suggested nanoparticles, but there is no solid evidence that these provide any advantage.
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120. A catalyst, of course, affects only the rate of the hydrogenation/dehydrogenation processes, not the theoretical extent of them, although they may increase the amount of hydrogen that can be stored or recovered within the limits imposed by the thermochemistry of the system.
121. Slattery DK, Hampton MD. Complex hydrides for hydrogen storage. Proc. 2002 DOE Hydrogen Program Review, NREL/CP-610-32405, 2002.
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123. Note, too, that MgH2 is easily ignited by contact with air or water, a problem that can sometimes be overcome by handling or transporting it as a slurry in a petroleum-based oil (see below).
124. Wu Y. Process for the regeneration of sodium borate to sodium borohydride for use as a hydrogen storage source. Proc 2003 DOE Hydrogen Program Review, 2003.
125. Also Wu Y. Low-cost, off-board regeneration of sodium borohydride. Presentation at May, 2004 DOE Hydrogen Program Review, 2004.
126. Bingham D, Wend JK. Radiolysis process for the regeneration of sodium borate to sodium borohydride. Presentation at May, 2004 DOE Hydrogen Program Review, 2004.
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128. Anhydrous ammonia is not reported to be corrosive but the presence of a small amount of moisture can easily trigger alkaline corrosion processes.
129. The updated paper by Bossel, Eliasson and Taylor can be found at: http://www.efcf.com/ reports/E08.pdf.
130. The most notable is a curiosity called borazole, B3N3H6, a very stable, colorless liquid with a boiling point of 55_C that is formed by reaction of borane (B2H6, 21.7 wt% hydrogen) with ammonia according to the reaction: 3B2H6+6NH3!2B3N3H6+12H2, (a reaction that also results in the release of a large amount of hydrogen). Borazole has a cyclic structure and is isoteric with benzene.
131. Autrey T, Gutowska A, Li. L, Gutowski,M, Linehan J, 2004 USDOE Hydrogen Program Review Presentation, see: http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/review04/st_p2_autrey_04. pdf, 2004.
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159. Collins MF, Michalek TR, Brink W. 7th Intersociety Energy Engineering Conference, San Diego; 1972. Design Parameters of a 300-watt Ammonia-Air Fuel Cell System. The ammonia was actually thermally split into hydrogen and nitrogen before it entered a relatively conventional hydrogen fuel cell.
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161. Powell MR, Fountain MS, Call CJ, Chellappa AS. See http://www.asc2002.com/manuscripts/F/ FO-01.PDF, 2002.
162. Wojcik A, Middleton H, Damopoulos I, Van Herle J. Ammonia as a fuel in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells. J Power Sources 2003;118:342-348.
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164. This number was arrived at by averaging data reported in a very large number of independent road tests in several US and European auto magazines. All data were converted to U.S. gallon units. Interestingly, the real-world numbers, often obtained in harder than average highway/ suburban driving, are closer to or the same as the EPA "City" value than the EPA "Highway" value. This coincides with the experience of many private owners.
165. The HHV or higher heating value (gross combustion enthalpy) assumes that the combustion products are cooled and that all of the latent heat of evaporation is recovered from the water produced during combustion. The lower heating value (LHV or net combustion enthalpy) excludes the latent heat contribution. This quantity is proportionately more substantial for hydrogen than for other fuels since the only combustion product is water vapor.
166. This is one of the reasons that the infamous Hindenburg fire spread so fast. Although it is now clear that the highly flammable skin of the airship was the cause of the fire, the intense heat from combustion of the hydrogen undoubtedly ensured that the fire progressed rapidly and consumed everything in its path.
167. Hydrogen has been used industrially for many years for themanufacture of ammonia fertilizers and as a reducing or hydrogenation agent in petroleum refining and vegetable oil processing. There are also many smaller uses. US consumption is usually estimated at 10 millionmetric tons annually with another 10-20 million mt used world-wide every year, but these estimates may now have to be adjusted downward because of the high cost of the natural gas from which most hydrogen is made.
168. www.pdcmachines.com, last reviewed September 10, 2004.
169. CNG=Compressed natural gas (typically 95% methane, 2.5% ethane).
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209. Campbell, Colin, 1996, ''The Twenty First Century, The World's Endowment of Conventional Oil and its Depletion''.
210. http://ethomass.web.wesleyan.edu/ees123/clathrate.htm (place marker-lists several useful sources).
211. Consodine DM. Energy Technology Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc; 1977. Despite its age, we continue to find this an invaluable "one-stop" source of energy information.
212. See http://www.wtrg.com/prices.htm. Obviously the comparison could be made in any fixed-dollar terms.
213. When fuels are burned in conventional equipment such as furnaces and internal combustion engines, the lower heating value should be used. This recognizes the fact that the latent heat of evaporation of the water in the fuel gases is not recovered and used. For hydrogen fuel cells, where that energy is recovered (if not always used), the higher heating value is more appropriate. Other types of fuel cell burning other than hydrogen may go either way depending upon the nature and temperature of the exhaust gases.
214. See, for example (there are many alternative sources): http://ianrpubs.unl.edu/farmpower/ g578.htm.
215. 1 bbl of diesel fuel=42 gallons=300 lb, approximately.
216. Audi won the 2006 Sebring 12-h race with a 5.5 L V-12 diesel-engined race car.
217. Markus F., Car & Driver, March 2004, p 118.
218. "Clean diesel" involves direct injection into the combustion chamber using the high (1500-2100 bar) fuel injection pressures achieved by common-rail or unit injector systems. Good emissions results cannot be obtained with prechamber injection.
219. Grabowski MS, McCormick RL. Combustion of fat and vegetable oil derived fuels in diesel engines. Prog Energy Combust Sci 1997.
220. There is a possibility that the performance of biodiesel could be improved by adjusting the proportions of some of the methyl esters present, by blending with other biodiesel products (e.g., made from canola oil) or even by fractionating and reconstituting the fuel. For example, low-temperature performance (cloud point or CFPP) might be improved by blending only methyl oleate (from soy diesel) and methyl linoleate (from canola diesel). But biodiesel is already expensive and such procedures would only add cost. A less costly alternative might be blending with BTL liquids.
221. As with most emissions data, the results tend to be highly engine-specific.
222. D-2 Petroleum diesel averages about 19,100 BTU/lb. Its density is about 57 lb/ft3 or 7.62 lb/US gallon. The corresponding data for pure soy ester Biodiesel are 17,400 BTU/lb, 55.81 lb/ft3 and 7.37 lb/US gallon. For comparison, gasoline at about 20,300 BTU/lb. and 6.00 lb/gal actually offers about 10% less energy per gallon than diesel or biodiesel despite its greater heating value per unit weight.
223. Ryan TW III, Southwest Research Institute, Emissions performance of Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel. Gas-to-Liquids Processing '99 Meeting, Intertech Corporation, San Antonio, TX, May 17-19, 1999.
224. See, for example, http://www.all4engineers.de/preview.php?cms=&lng=de&alloc=33&id=53. which has links to many other useful sources.
225. See, for example, Bacon FT. High pressure hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells: In Young GJ. Fuel Cells. Volume New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold; 1960.
226. Larminie J, Dicks A. Fuel Cells Explained. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2003
227. Hoogers G. Fuel Cell Technology. CRC Press; 2002.
228. LLNL, 1997. The unitized regenerative fuel cell. Science and Technology Review. Lawrence Livermore Lab; 1997.
229. See www.IInl.gov/str/Mitlit.html for additional bibliography.
230. There are still a few unresolved catalyst poisoning problems, in this case due to chemical by-products from cell operation. These are being addressed successfully.
231. Passive=no fuel pumps, fans or compressors, just gravity feeds - see Fig. 10.2
232. New developments in small turbocharged, lean-burn direct-injection (LBDI) gasoline engines appear to hold great promise of much improved efficiencies for the near future-see Ref. 10, below.
233. Lake T, Ricardo Consulting Engineers. Downsized DI gasoline engines for low CO2. Paper presented at Fuel Economy and Downsizing. I.Mech.E, London, May 13, 2004. See also www.ricardo.com.
234. Wilson J.R. TMG/Energy private Communication; 2004. (data to be published).
235. National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council. The Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers, and R&D Needs. Washington: The National Academies Press; DC 2004 See: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309091632/html/.
236. See, for example, the newly announced 2005 Honda Accord Hybrid, which offers higher performance higher than the gasoline Accord on which it is based (Healey JR, 2004), visited September 27, 2004.