The spectacle of intimacy: A public life for the Victorian family

The Spectacle of Intimacy: A Public Life for the Victorian Famiyl

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-250

  Chase, Karen ^a   Levenson, Michael ^a  

^a NONE

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References (283)

1. Dr. C. G. Carus, The King of Saxony's Journey through England and Scotland, in the Year 1844 trans. S. A. Davison (London: Chapman and Hall, 1846), 32.
2. Census of Great Britain, 1851 (London: Longman, Brown, 1854), xxxvi. "Own voice" may well be disingenuous. Edward Higgs reports the contemporary assumption that William Farr, the superintendent of statistics at the General Register Office and a commissioner for the census from 1851 to 1871, was the author of the census reports during those years. A Clearer Sense of the Census (London: HMSO, 1996), 17.
3. Higgs, A Clearer Sense of the Census, 8.
4. John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985, 2nd ed. (London: Methuen, 1986), 98.
5. Jürgen Habermas, "The Public Sphere," New German Critique 1, no. 3 (Fall 1974): 50, and The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger, with the assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991);.
6. Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977).
7. Habermas, "The Public Sphere," 50. Sennett writes that this "was the era in which coffeehouses, then cafés and coaching inns, became social centers; in which the theater and opera houses became open to a wide public through the open sale of tickets rather than the older practice whereby aristocratic patrons distributed places." The Fall of Public Man, 17.
8. Habermas, "The Public Sphere," 51, and Sennett, The Fall of Public Man, 19.
9. Thaïs E. Morgan has usefully asked to what extent our own methodological categories of public and private retain Victorian investments. "Afterword: Victorian Scandals, Victorian Strategies," in Victorian Scandals: Representations of Gender and Class, ed. Kristine Ottesen Garrigan (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1992), 311.
10. William Cohen notices "how the privacy constitutive of the Victorian subject is structured in and through the public sphere against which it positions itself." Sex Scandal: The Private Parts of Victorian Fiction (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 110.
11. Alexander Welsh, George Eliot and Blackmail (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), 73, 71.
12. Home Is Home: A Domestic Tale (London: William Pickering, 1851), 2.
13. Charles Dickens, David Copperfield, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 3.
14. M.B.H., Home Truths for Home Peace, or "Muddle" Defeated, a Practical Inquiry into What Chiefly Mars or Makes the Comfort of Domestic Life (London: Effingham Wilson, 1851), 159.
15. Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), ch. 3.
16. "A Home Picture," Home Companion 3 (November 1855): 77-78.
17. "Family Troubles," Saturday Review 18 (September 10, 1864): 329.
18. Sarah Ellis, The Daughters of England, Their Position in Society, Character and Responsibilities (London: Peter Jackson, 1842), 273.
19. Caroline Norton, "Curious Customs in the County of Middlesex," in The Coquette and Other Tales and Sketches, in Prose and Verse (London: E. Churton, 1835), 1:203.
20. Catherine Gallagher, The Industrial Reformation of English Fiction, 1832-1867 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985);.
21. Mary Poovey, Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988);.
22. Catherine Hall, "The Early Formation of Victorian Domestic Ideology," in White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (New York: Routledge, 1992), 75-93;.
23. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987);.
24. Elizabeth Langland, Nobody's Angels: Middle-Class Women and Domestic Ideology in Victorian Culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995);.
25. Mark Girouard, The Victorian Country House (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979);.
26. F.M.L. Thompson, The Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Britain, 1830-1900 (London: Fontana, 1988);.
27. Adrienne Munich, Queen Victoria's Secrets (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996);.
28. Margaret Homans, Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837-1876 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998);.
29. Michael Anderson, "The Social Implications of Demographic Change," Cambridge Social History of Britain, ed. F.M.L. Thompson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 2:1-70;.
30. Mary Lyndon Shanley, Feminism, Marriage, and the Law in Victorian England, 1850-1895 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989); Cohen, Sex Scandal.
31. Compare Joseph Litvak's interpretation in Caught in the Act: Theatricality in the Nineteenth-Century English Novel (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992) of the the relationship between the nontheatrical dispositions of many Victorian novels and their telling moments of eruptive theatricality.
32. Caroline Norton, Letters, etc. dated from June 1836 to July 1841 (London: privately printed), Third Correspondence, 4.
33. Caroline Norton The Undying One; Sorrows of Rosalie; and Other Poems (New York: C. S. Francis, 1854), 12.
34. Although she writes of episodes later in the century, Judith Walkowitz offers exemplary accounts of the eruptions of sensational celebrity. City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late-Victorian London (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
35. Caroline Norton, "The Favourite Flower," in The Keepsake for MDCCCXXXVI (London: Longman, Rees, 1836), 75-76.
36. Hartley Coleridge, "Modern English Poetesses," Quarterly Review 66 (1840): 376.
37. Caroline Norton, English Laws for Women in the Nineteenth Century (London: printed for private circulation, 1854), 26.
38. Caroline Norton, "Fashion's Idol," in The Keepsake for MDCCCXXXVI, 254.
39. Caroline Norton, "The Broken Vow," in The Coquette and Other Tales and Sketches, in Prose and Verse (London: Edward Churton, 1835), 1:144.
40. Caroline Norton, "Count Rodolphe's Heir," in Keepsake MDCCCXXXVI, 98.
41. Caroline Norton, "Kate Bouverie," in The Coquette and Other Tales, 2:221.
42. Caroline Norton, The Wife and Woman's Reward (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1835): 1:12, 184; 2:15.
43. The Letters of Caroline Norton to Lord Melbourne, ed. James O. Hoge and Clarke Olney (Athens: Ohio State University Press, 1974), 70.
44. Morning Chronicle, June 25, 1836, 1.
45. Extraordinary Trial! Norton v. Viscount Melbourne for CRIM. CON. (London: William Marshall, 1836), 12.
46. Caroline Norton, writing under the name Pearce Stevenson, A Plain Letter to the Lord Chancellor on the Infant Custody Bill (London: J. Ridgway, 1839), 9-10.
47. Mary Lyndon Shanley explains the legal intricacies of Norton's predicament in close detail. Feminism, Marriage, and the Law in Victorian England, 1850-1895 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989): 22-29.
48. Morning Chronicle, June 25, 1836, 1.
49. Jonathan Parry, The Rise and Fall of Liberal Government in Victorian Britain (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 27.
50. Letters, etc., Third Correspondence, 44.
51. "Scandal," notes William Cohen, "in fact always hangs upon a name, since reputation itself about maintaining a good name, and keeping one's name out of the mouths of others is the principal goal of avoiding scandal." Sex Scandal: The Private Parts of Victorian Fiction (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 22.
52. Letters, etc., Second Correspondence, 29, 35, 48.
53. See Shanley's important analysis of Norton's struggles to reform the law. Feminism, Marriage, and the Law, 26-29.
54. Mixing his admiration with his male pride, Charles Sumner wrote of Norton's pamphlet that "it is one of the most remarkable things from the pen of a woman. The world here does not suspect her, but supposes that the tract is the production of some grave barrister. It is one of the best discussions on a legislative matter I have ever read." Perkins, The Life of Mrs. Norton, 155.
55. Dorothy E. Zaborsky has offered a narrative account and a strong coherent interpretation of the texts that accumulated around the infant custody campaign. See " 'Domestic Anarchy and the Destruction of the Family': Caroline Norton and the Custody of Infants Bill," International Journal of Women's Studies 7, no. 5 (November-December 1984): 397-411.
56. In her subtle chapter on the 1857 Matrimonial Causes Act, Mary Poovey narrates the events of Norton's second great reform campaign, her ardent agitation for reform in the law of divorce. See Uneven Developments, 62-88.
57. Caroline Norton, Separation of Mother and Child by the Law of Custody of Infants Considered (London: Roake and Varty, 1838), 3.
58. See Shanley, Feminism, Marriage and the Law, 136, 137.
59. See useful accounts of the polemic in Zaborsky, " 'Domestic Anarchy,' " and in John Killham, Tennyson and The Princess (London: Athlone Press, 1958). In close- grained detail Killham sketches the curving line that connects Norton's agony, the essay in the British and Foreign Review, and Tennyson's meditation on female education.
60. "Custody of Infants' Bill," British and Foreign Review 7 (July 1838): 384. Although the author of the essay was unknown, Caroline Norton naturally held the editor Kemble responsible. Surviving documents make clear that he took great pride in the verbal assault and suggest that he was actively engaged in the composition. Killham writes that "Whether he was the sole author is difficult to say, but it is not to be overlooked that Kemble was well known for the virulence of his expression when dealing with subjects near his heart." Tennyson and The Princess, 167.
61. Caroline Norton, The Dream and Other Poems (New York: C. S. Francis, 1845), 45.
62. Caroline Norton, The Child of the Islands, 2nd ed. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1846), 112.
63. Speeches of Brougham (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1841), 418.
64. For several years Brougham had been an eloquent tangle in the hair of the Whigs. He and Melbourne had clashed sharply in 1837, and over the next several years, even when the conflict was not so direct or open, Brougham's insinuations were a chronic irritant. See, for instance, Lord Holland's account in The Holland House Diaries, ed. Abraham D. Kriegel (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977), 376.
65. Of the 445 members of the queen's household, at issue were the mistress of the robes, the duchess of Sutherland, and the eight ladies of the bedchamber, including the Marchioness Tavistock, the Marchioness Lansdowne, the countess of Charlemont, the countess of Mulgrave, Baroness Portman, Baroness Lyttleton, Lady Barham, and the countess of Durham. For an account of the structure of the queen's household, see Monica Charlot, Victoria: The Young Queen (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), 111.
66. Adrienne Munich's fine study of Queen Victoria reveals the tensions between the public constructions and the self-representations of the queen, and demonstrates how Victoria consistently "blended into her age while standing apart from it." Queen Victoria's Secrets (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 13.
67. Margaret Homans astutely captures the "paradox of [the Queen's] agency" with reference to the fissure between her public function and private life in Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837-1876 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), xix-xxxvii.
68. For concise narratives of the political and personal events, see Elizabeth Longford, Queen Victoria: Born to Succeed (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 108-14.
69. Charlot, Victoria: The Young Queen, 140-46.
70. The Letters of Queen Victoria, ed. Arthur Christopher Benson and Viscount Esher, 3 vols. (New York: Longmans, Green, 1907), 1:194-95.
71. Later, within the difficult terms of her marriage, Victoria will have to negotiate again the difficult pass between private and public realms. The queen anxiously appealed to her ministers and to Parliament to grant formal titles and dignities to Albert on the grounds that it was unseemly for the husband to be absorbed by his wife. As Gail Turley Houston has argued, Victoria's dilemma was to adjudicate between the conduct-book standards of married life, which were sanctified by legal dispensation, and the exceptional strains her public position imposed upon her marriage. See "Reading and Writing Victoria: The Conduct Book and the Legal Constitution of Female Sovereignty," in Remaking Queen Victoria, ed. Margaret Homans and Adrienne Munich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 159-81, esp. 172-76.
72. Sir Robert Peel from His Private Papers, ed. Charles Stuart Parker (London: John Murray, 1899), 1:389.
73. Edward Bulwer Lytton, "The Late Political Events," Blackwood's 70 (June 1839): 135.
74. Charles C. F. Greville, The Greville Memoirs, vol. 1, pt. 2, ed. Henry Reeve (New York: D. Appleton, 1885), 113.
75. A seething J.W. Croker summarizes the tableau: "The wife of the Lord President of the Council was First Lady of the Bedchamber; one sister of the Secretary for Ireland is Mistress of the Robes, and another, Lady of the Bedchamber-as was also the wife of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland: the sister of the Secretary at War is Bedchamber Woman; the sister-in-law of the Home Secretary and the daughter of the Chancellor of the Exchequer are Maids of Honour-not to mention the wife, sister, and daughter of Lords Durham, Spencer, and Grey, who though not now in the Cabinet, are even more prominent in the Whig party than any of the Ministers." J. W. Croker, "The Household and the Ministry," Quarterly Review 64 (1839): 236.
76. On the other hand, Lord Liverpool, in his own letter to Peel, resists the prevailing overstatement. Drawing on his personal connection to the queen (through his daughter), Liverpool writes that "it is but fair and just for me to say that no objection was made by Lord Melbourne in several instances to appointments, or offers of appointments, to persons of adverse politics to himself." Liverpool goes on to note that "Lady Manvers was offered a ladyship of the Bedchamber, Lady Harriet Clive was made Bedchamber Woman, and Miss Pitt and Miss Cox were made Maids of Honour." Still, whatever the scale of Whig intentions, no one tried to deny that the domestic circle of the queen had been given a sharply political character (Peel, Papers, 402).
77. J. W. Croker, "The New Reign," Quarterly Review 59 (1837): 247.
78. All through Croker's gnashing anger runs the thought that the queen will disappear so far into the recesses of privacy that she will be a toy in the hands of her advisors. It is a terror of a space removed from the public arena, a space not regulated by Parliament or the press. So Croker warns that the Whigs have promulgated "a doctrine by which the nearest interests of the Sovereign,-the hourly attendance on her person,-the daily participation of her society,-and all the influences, both personal and political, of an intimate familiarity, might be irrevocably committed to the meanest, or the most mischievous, or the most mercenary hands, freed from any visible control, and exempt form all legal or even moral responsibility" (Croker, "Household," 261).
79. In his recent study of Victoria's reign, Richard Williams provides a succinct evaluation of the odd political contours of this incident. "The Tories, traditionally the upholders of royal prerogative were effectively prevented from taking office by an assertion of that prerogative and the Whigs, one of whose salient principles was the curtailment of prerogative, found themselves kept in power by it." See The Contentious Crown: Public Discussion of the British Monarchy in the Reign of Queen Victoria (Hants: Ashgate Publishing, 1997), 85.
80. J. W. Croker, Letter to Lord Hertford, May 29, 1839. The Croker Papers, ed. Louis J. Jennings (London: John Murray, 1885), 2:344.
81. Margaret Homans has shown how Victoria inherited a "paradigm of queenship" from Queen Caroline, a "queenly identification with vulnerable femininity." "The Powers of Powerlessness: the Courtships of Elizabeth Barrett and Queen Victoria," in Feminist Measures: Soundings in Poetry and Theory, ed. Lynn Keller and Christanne Miller (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press), 246. And between Caroline and Victoria, we suggest, there stands the additional vulnerable femininity of weakening male monarchs.
82. Homans argues persuasively that "the modern British monarch was first and foremost a woman." Royal Representations, 2.
83. Ian Newbould provides a detailed discussion of the events leading up to and down from this last royal dismissal of a ministry. Whiggery and Reform: 1830-41 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), 152-59.
84. As it assumed published form, Croker's essay, with its bitterness and vehement accusation-it names Melbourne guilty of "enormous lying"-suggests the conversion of measured parliamentary rhetoric into polemical discharge. The press, in effect, could say what the politicians meant. It is worth noticing that this view of 1839 stands in significant conflict with the position that Peel offered to Croker in July 5, 1837, when he wrote that "The theory of the Constitution is, that the King has no will, except in the choice of his Ministers-that he acts by their advice, that they are responsible, &c. But this, like a thousand other theories, is at variance with the fact. The personal character of the Sovereign, in this and all other Governments, has an immense practical effect." Croker Papers, 314.
85. Croker had written a vastly popular pamphlet on the royal marriage, A Letter from the King to His People (London: W. Turner, 1820).
86. Thomas Laqueur, "The Queen Caroline Affair: Politics as Art in the Reign of George IV," Journal of Modern History 54 (1982): 442.
87. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 155. Davidoff and Hall also demonstrate that "The reaction to the whole episode marks one of the first public moments at which one view of marriage and of sexuality was decisively rejected in favour of another. The domestic had been imprinted on the monarchical" (152).
88. The Home Life and Letters of Mrs. Ellis, compiled by her nieces (London: J. Nisbet, 1893), 75.
89. Sarah Stickney Ellis, The Young Ladies' Reader (London: Grant and Griffith, 1845), 17.
90. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 182.
91. Catherine Hall, "The Early Formation of Victorian Domestic Ideology," in White, Male and Middle Class: Explorations in Feminism and History (New York: Routledge, 1992), 75-93.
92. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850.
93. See both Margaret Homans, Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837-1876 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
94. Adrienne Munich, Queen Victoria's Secrets (New York: Colulmbia University Press, 1996).
95. Elizabeth Langland, Nobody's Angels: Middle-Class Women and Domestic Ideology in Victorian Culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995).
96. Robin Gilmour, The Victorian Period: The Intellectual and Cultural Context of English Literature, 1830-1890 (London: Longman, 1993).
97. Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977).
98. Mary Poovey, Making a Social Body: British Cultural Formation, 1830-1864 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
99. Charles Dickens, Barnaby Rudge (1954; reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 55.
100. William Ellis, Polynesian Researches during a Residence of nearly Eight Years in the Society and Sandwich Islands, 2nd ed. (London: Fisher, Son and Jackson, 1831-32), 1:viii.
101. William Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. 1 (London: Fisher, Son, 1838), 157.
102. Christopher Herbert notes that Polynesia and surrounding islands "exercised from the time of their rediscovery in the last third of the eighteenth century an especially powerful influence on the European imagination and served as a theater for elaborating key themes of European thought" (Culture and Anomie, 156).
103. Sarah Stickney Ellis, Pictures of Private Life, 1st ser., 4th ed. (London: Smith, Elder, 1834), 312.
104. William Ellis, The Christian Keepsake and Missionary Annual (London: Fisher, Son, 1838), n.p.
105. The dignified William Ellis can appear ridiculous in his wife's letters. At one point she describes how he has had "his hair cut as short as possible, and what there is he strokes down as flat as he can make it, so that the other day, when he and I were talking grandly to two gentleman about imagination, I could scarcely help laughing to see him look so entirely opposed to anything of an imaginary nature. His manners, too, I am sorry to say, are far from improving" (Home Life, 114).
106. Sarah Stickney [Ellis], The Poetry of Life (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea and Blackwood, 1835), 13.
107. Sarah Stickney Ellis, TheWomen of England: Social Duties and Domestic Habits (Philadelphia: E. L. Carey and A. Hart, 1839), 19-25.
108. Sarah Ellis, The Daughters of England, Their Position in Society, Character and Responsibilities (London: Peter Jackson, 1842), 11.
109. Sarah Stickney Ellis, The Wives of England, Their Relative Duties, Domestic Influence, and Social Obligations (London: Fisher, Son, 1843), 17.
110. Judith Newton argues convincingly that "despite their class and gender collaboration, the writers of women's manuals, in their tendency to place men at the bottom of industrial capitalist and domestic ills and in their tendency to isolate women like themselves as social heroes, challenged the power relations of their world and in the process entertained a view of nineteenth-century society which middle-class men, by and large, did not share." "Making-and Remaking-History: Another Look at 'Patriarchy,'" in Feminist Issues in Literary Scholarship, ed. Shari Benstock (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 130.
111. Elizabeth Langland has offered the most instructive account of the managerial responsibilities of the middle-class housewife. As opposed to a conventional picture of the homemaker as "passive, helpless, and dependent," Langland persuasively argues that this "ideology of domesticity was itself contested by the managerial function of the bourgeois housewife." Nobody's Angels: Middle-Class Women and Domestic Ideology in Victorian Culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 21, 16.
112. Catherine Gallagher, The Industrial Reformation of English Fiction, 1832-1867 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 119.
113. Consider in this immediate context Newton's suggestion "that the creation of gender systems is a more reciprocal process than we have sometimes believed." "Making-and Remaking-History," 130.
114. On the complex relations between the family and the encompassing social world, see Gallagher's account of Ellis in relation to Arthur Helps: "Family and Society: Rhetoric of Reconciliation" in The Industrial Reformation of English Fiction 1832-1867, 113-26.
115. See Langland's chapter on "New Women in Old Guises," in Nobody's Angels, 222-49.
116. Charles Dickens, The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit (1951; reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 51.
117. As Robert Lougy notes, Dickens's articulation of the "House of Chuzzlewit" leads him to "examine. the nature of 'human nature' itself and those conflicts, jealousies, and desires found within the family structure." See "Repressive and Expressive Forms: The Bodies of Comedy and Desire in Martin Chuzzlewit," Dickens Studies Annual 21 (1992): 49.
118. To C. C. Felton, January 2, 1844, in Charles Dickens, Letters, ed. Kathleen Tillotson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 4:2.
119. Charles Dickens, A Christmas Carol (1954, reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 24. The longing to be physically present where the text is being read appears in this remark to J. V. Staples: "I assure you that it would have given me heartfelt satisfaction to have been in your place when you read my little Carol to the Poor in your neighbourhood." April 3, 1844, Letters, 4:95.
120. "You know, as well as I, that I think Chuzzlewit in a hundred points immeasurably the best of my stories. That I feel my power now, more than I ever did. That I have a greater confidence in myself than I ever had. That I know, if I have health, I could sustain my place in the minds of thinking men, though fifty writers started up to-morrow. But how many readers do not think! How many take it upon trust from knaves and idiots, that one writes too fast, or runs a thing to death! How coldly did this very book go on for months, until it forced itself up in people's opinion, without forcing itself up in sale!" Dickens to Forster, November 2, 1843, Letters, 3:590.
121. To Thomas Powell, March 2, 1844, Letters, 4:61.
122. Some of the best recent readings of Dickens have emphasized the difficulties that beset the avowals of family happiness. See for example, Margaret Lane's argument that Dickens's "domestic ideal" is consistently challenged by "his domestic back-grounds cold, arid, comfortless." "Dickens on the Hearth," in Dickens 1970: Centenary Essays, ed. Michael Slater (London: Chapman and Hall, 1970), 154-55.
123. Sylvia Manning addresses the unsettled condition of the family in her essay "Family in Dickens," in Changing Images of the Family, ed. Virginia Tufte and Barbara Myerhoff (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), 141-53.
124. Kate Flint notes that "Instead of bland domesticity, we have the capricious variety of unpredictable tempers, the simmering possibilities for rebellion, the enjoyable voyeurism of looking into families where relatives are even more unreasonable and grotesque than our own. Not only does Dickens' fiction continually provide lively concrete examples which contradict the ideal articulated so easily in the narrative voice, not only do they call the possibility of realising these ideals somewhat into question, but they make us query whether the achievement of marital felicity is all that we, in reading, desire." Dickens (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1986), 116.
125. Although he does not study the Pinches, Jon Sorgal's analysis of the latent male sibling rivalry that riddles the narrative of Martin Chuzzlewit calls attention to the density within the sibling plot. ''The Parable of the Spoons and Ladles: Sibling and Crypto- Sibling Typology in Martin Chuzzlewit," Dickens Studies Annual 26 (1998): 51-71.
126. Harry Stone insists on the importance of the brother-sister relation in particular, noting that in this novel and elsewhere, ''happy wifehood is a vague status which comes late in the novel as a reward for loyal sisterhood." See ''The Love Pattern in Dickens' Novels," in Dickens the Craftsman: Strategies of Presentation, ed. Robert B. Partlow Jr. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois Press, 1970), 10.
127. Charles Dickens, The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club (1948; reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 57.
128. Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991). ch. 32.
129. James Kincaid argues that ''Sim's pose of fierceness is the result of domestic tyranny," and ''the fact that he serves the gentlest of masters shows us finally how insidious the repression is." Dickens and the Rhetoric of Laughter (London: Clarendon Press, 1971), 127.
130. Charles Dickens, Barnaby Rudge, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 4.
131. Alexander Welsh argues persuasively that ''if the problem that besets [Dickens] can be called the city, his answer can be named the hearth." We add that if the city presses from the outside, sexuality is its seditious confederate residing within. The City of Dickens (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), 142.
132. Peter Ackroyd, Dickens (New York: Harper Collins, 1990), 419. Thompson was an older widower, and Sylvia Manning treats the episode in the context of Dickens's eroticization of encounters between older men and young women. See ''Dickens, January, and May," Dickensian 71 (May 1975): 68.
133. And yet, as Welsh emphasizes, ''the main affective relationship" is not between Ruth and John but between Ruth and Tom: ''If anyone, it is really Tom who has discovered the sexual attraction of his sister." The City of Dickens, 150.
134. In writing of the connection between Tom and Ruth, Albert J. Guerard remarks that ''The idealized relationship is one in which erotic attraction exists, and all the quieter joys of marriage, but with sexual intercourse impossible." The Triumph of the Novel: Dickens, Dostoevsky, Faulkner (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 75.
135. Michael Slater, Introduction, to The Christmas Books (1971; reprint Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), 2:9-11.
136. See also Robert L. Patten, '' 'A Surprising Transformation': Dickens and the Hearth," in Nature and the Victorian Imagination, ed. U. C. Knoepflmacher and G. B. Tennyson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), 163-64.
137. As Slater indicates, Forster recorded that ''its sale at the outset doubled that of both its predecessors." Introduction, 11.
138. Harry Stone points out that ''the cricket plays much less of an interventionary role than its earlier counterparts," and there are fewer ''intrusions of a supernatural force" in this Christmas tale. Dickens and the Invisible World: Fairy Tales, Fantasy and Novel Making (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 131.
139. Charles Dickens, The Cricket on the Hearth, in Christmas Books, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (1954; reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 176.
140. Welsh writes of Dickens's ''fondness for portraying the heroine as both woman and child." The City of Dickens, 154.
141. For a study of this pattern see Sylvia Manning, ''Dickens, January, and May," 67-75.
142. Charles Dickens, David Copperfield, Oxford Illusrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 45.
143. ''His style is spectacle," says Gillian Beer in writing of Dickens and the stage, and indeed it's clear that the will to theatricality meets the desire to reveal secrets. '' 'Coming Wonders': Uses of Theatre in the Victorian Novel," in English Drama: Forms and Development, ed. Marie Axton and Raymond Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 179.
144. In this connection consider Joseph Litvak's reading of Nicholas Nickebly and his discussion of ''the disjunctive theatricality" in the novel, its ''discontinuous theatricalities." Caught in the Act: Theatricality in the Nineteenth-Century English Novel (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 116.
145. Compare Robert L. Patten's judgment that Dickens ''wants to generate some uneasiness about the precise character of Dot's apparent deceit." '' 'A Surprising Transformation,' " 165.
146. Letters from Charles Dickens to Angela Burdett-Coutts, 1841-1865, ed. Edgar Johnson (London: Jonathan Cape, 1953), 99.
147. Charles Dickens, The Cricket on the Hearth, Christmas Books, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 196.
148. Steven Marcus has spoken of The Battle of Life as a ''hopelessly dismal story." Dickens from Pickwick to Dombey (New York: W. W. Norton, 1965), 289.
149. Charles Dickens, The Battle of Life, Christmas Books, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 244.
150. Charles Dickens, Martin Chuzzlewit, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 8.
151. Nancy Fix Anderson notes that the ''specific motive was to guarantee the legitimacy and inheritance of the son of the seventh Duke of Beaufort, who had married his deceased wife's half-sister." ''The 'Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Bill' Controversy: Incest Anxiety and the Defense of Family Purity in Victorian England," Journal of British Studies 21 no. 2 (1982): 67.
152. See the perspicuous historical account offered by Jack Goody. The Development of the Family and Marriage in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 7.
153. Cynthia Fraser Behrman provided a useful overview of the long parliamentary struggle in ''The Annual Blister: A Sidelight on Victorian Social and Parliamentary History," Victorian Studies 11, no. 4 (June 1968): 483-502.
154. First Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the State and Operation of the Law of Marriage (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1848; reprint, Shannon: Irish University Press, 1969), v.
155. Anderson argues that fear of incest, incited by the close relations among siblings, lay behind opposition to the bill. She quotes Macaulay's remark to his sister Hannah that ''husbands and wives are not so happy and cannot be so happy as brothers and sisters." ''The 'Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Bill,' " 70.
156. Margaret Morganroth Gullette introduces another pressure, the aging of the population and the changed understanding of the course of life. As people lived longer, the possibility of second marriages began to circulate in the imaginative life of the culture. She sees the narratives emerging during the parliamentary debates as counterparts to nineteenth-century remarriage novels. ''The Puzzling Case of the DeceasedWife's Sister: Nineteenth-Century England Deals with a Second-Chance Plot," Representations 31 (September 1990): 142-66.
157. The definitive account of this separation is found in Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
158. See Anthony Wohl's important essay, ''Sex and the Single Room: Incest among the Victorian Working Classes," The Victorian Family: Structure and Stresses, ed. Anthony Wohl (London: Croom Helm, 1978), 200.
159. Mary Poovey observes that the ''Law Amendment Society, founded by Lord Brougham in 1844, had the express design of accelerating the rationalization of the entire legal system." Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid- Victorian England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 54.
160. Lord Wharncliffe, Speech in the House of Lords, May 14, 1841 (London: printed for the Marriage Law Reform Association), 7.
161. Abraham Hayward, Remarks on the Law Regarding Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife (London: W. Benning, 1845), 22.
162. Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 20.
163. William Campbell Sleigh, Marriage with a DeceasedWife's Sister: Speech delivered at a public meeting of the inhabitants of Edinburgh held in Brighton Street Church on Wednesday, April 10, 1850 (Edinburgh: J. Wares, 1850), v.
164. Rev. E. B. Pusey, A Letter on the Proposed Change in the Laws Prohibiting Marriages between Those Near of Kin (Oxford: John Henry Parker, 1842), 17. Reprinted from the British Magazine, November, 1840.
165. Alexander Beresford Hope, The Report of Her Majesty's Commission on the Laws of Marriage, Relative to Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, Examined in a Letter to Sir Robert Harry Inglish, Bart. M.P. (London: James Ridgway, 1850), 26.
166. "Marriage-Mr. Wortley's Bill," Quarterly Review 85 (1849): 171.
167. "Mr. StuartWortley's Marriage Bill," North British Review 12 (February 1850): 534.
168. Berman follows "the intricate and ever-changing relationship between the Church and Parliament" as it developed later in the century. "The Annual Blister.".
169. Compare Gullette, "The Puzzling Case of the Deceased Wife's Sister," 160-63.
170. [Earl of Albemarle], A Parent's Appeal to the Members of Both Houses of Parliament against Lord Bury's Bill for Legalizing Marriages with a Deceased Wife's Sister (Tunbridge Wells: Henry S. Colbran, 1858), 6.
171. Charles Dickens, David Copperfield, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 59.
172. Charles Dickens, Letters, ed. Kathleen Tillotson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), May 8, 1843, 3:483.
173. Margaret Oliphant, Miss Marjoribanks (Harmondsworth: Penguin/Virago, 1989), 199.
174. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick observes the "breathtaking ellipsis with which class conflict is omitted." "Tennyson's Princess: One Bride for Seven Brothers," in Critical Essays on Alfred Lord Tennyson, ed. Herbert F. Tucker (New York: G. K. Hall, 1993), 130.
175. John Killham, Tennyson and The Princess: Reflections of an Age (London: Athlone Press, 1958), 86-119.
176. Caroline Norton, English Laws for Women in the Nineteenth Century (London: printed for private circulation, 1854), 2.
177. Alfred Tennyson, The Princess, in Tennyson: A Selected Edition, ed. Christopher Ricks (Burnt Mill: Longman, 1969), prologue, lines 217-19.
178. Sedgwick's phrase is apt. The poem is indeed a "passionate and confused myth of the sexes." "Tennyson's Princess: One Bride for Seven Brothers," 134.
179. Alfred Lord Tennyson: A Memoir, ed. Hallam Tennyson (London: Macmillan, 1899) 1:251.
180. And, as Edmond points out, Ida's assumption of the nursing role stands as a prelude to her marriage: "The return of feeling in Ida, begun by the child and sealed by her nursing the prince back to life, brings with it a return of the 'natural' order of the family." Affairs of the Hearth, 117.11.
181. "Bloomerism," Bentley's Miscellany 30 (1851): 642.
182. Lancet (September 1854): 281.
183. Quoted in Punch 21 (1851): 156.
184. Charles Dickens, "Sucking Pigs," Household Words 4 (November 8, 1852): 145.
185. "Husbands, Wives, Fathers, Mothers," Blackwood's Magazine 71 (January 1852): 84.
186. Punch 21 (1851): 189.
187. Sarah Stickney Ellis, Women of England: Social Duties and Domestic Habits (Philadelphia: E. L. Carey and A. Hart, 1939), 49.
188. Notes on Nurses, Florence Nightingale Archive, London.
189. Florence Nightingale, Notes on Nursing: What It Is and What It Is Not (London: Harrison, 1860).
190. Florence Nightingale, Letters from the Crimea, 1854-56, ed. Sue M. Goldie (New York: Mandolin, 1997), 144.
191. Anna Jameson, The Relative Position of Mothers and Governesses (London: Spottiswoode and Shaw, 1848), 7.
192. Frederick Denison Maurice, Queen's College, London: Its Objects and Methods (London: Francis and John Rivington, 1848), 12.
193. Anna Jameson, Sisters of Charity: Catholic and Protestant, Abroad and at Home (London: Longmans, 1855), 10.
194. Frederick Denison Maurice, Lectures for Ladies on Practical Subjects, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Macmillan, 1857), 10.
195. Martha Vicinus describes the development of the nursing vocation in the first decades after Nightingale's apotheosis. See the chapter on "Reformed Hospital Nursing: Discipline and Cleanliness," in Independent Women: Work and Community for Single Women: 1850-1920 (London: Virago, 1985), 85-120.
196. Harriet Martineau, "Miss Nightingale's Notes on Nursing," Quarterly Review 107 (April 1860): 403.
197. It was also, of course, the decade of the debacle of the Crimea. But the unruly military confusion of that war heightened the will toward administrative efficiency. Nightingale was only one of the many who came home from the war with zealous plans to reform the army.
198. Florence Nightingale, Notes on Nursing for the Labouring Classes (London: Harrison, 1860), 15.
199. Charles Dickens, Our Mutual Friend, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), bk. 1, ch. 5.
200. Charles Dickens, Dombey and Son, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 3.
201. Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor, vol. 1 (London: Griffin, Bohn, 1861), 43.
202. George Godwin, London Shadows: A Glance at the Homes of the Thousands (London: G. Routledge, 1854), 10.
203. Thomas Beames, Rookeries of London: Past, Present, and Prospective (London: T. Bosworth, 1852), 2-3.
204. John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985, 2nd ed. (London: Methuen, 1986), 67.
205. Quarterly Review 82 (December 1847): 144.
206. Quoted in The Housing Question in London, London County Council (1900), 2.
207. W. J. Fox, Parliamentary Debates, Hansard, April 8, 1851, col. 1274.
208. Martin Daunton, "Housing," in The Cambridge Social History of Britain, ed. F.M.L. Thompson, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 202.
209. Quoted in J. Mordaunt Crook, "Metropolitan Improvements: John Nash and the Picturesque," in London: World City, 1800-1840, ed. Celina Fox (New Haven: Yale University Press), 90.
210. Charles Dickens, in Michael T. Bass, Street Music in the Metropolis: Correspondence and Observations on the Existing Law, and Proposed Amendments (London: John Murray, 1864), 41.
211. On the subject of street music in London, see John Picker, "Sound Proof: Victorian Professionals Make the Case against Street Music" (University of Virginia, unpublished paper).
212. See Pamela Gilbert " 'Scarcely to Be Described': Urban Extremes as Real Spaces and Mythic Places in the 1854 Cholera Epidemic" (University of Florida, Unpublished paper).
213. See F.M.L. Thompson, "The Rise of Suburbia," In The Victorian City: A Reader in British Urban History, 1820-1914, ed. R. J. Morris (London: Longman, 1993), 179.
214. George Gissing, In the Year of the Jubilee (London: Lawrence and Bullen, 1895), 410.
215. Charles Dickens, Dombey and Son, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 44.
216. Memorandum, correspondence series, 1861, K23, King's College London Archives.
217. F.J.C. Hearnshaw, The Centenary History of King's College London, 1828-1928 (London: George C. Harrap, 1929), 260.
218. Mark Girouard puts it well: "Whenever a discussion was held, a deputation mounted, or a correspondence embarked on he was certain to be in the foreground." The Victorian Country House (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), 263.
219. See Girouard's discussion of the match between Kerr and the Times. The Victorian Country House, 263-64.
220. Stanley Morison, The History of the Times, vol. 2 (London, 1935-52), 47.
221. Robert Kerr, The Gentleman's House, 3rd ed. (London: John Murray, 1871), 1.
222. See Girouard, Life in the English Country House.
223. Robert Kerr, A Small Country House, 2nd ed. (London: John Murray, 1874), 55.
224. The "metonymic association of odor and the lower classes" is well discussed in Elizabeth Langland, Nobody's Angels: Middle-Class Women and Domestic Ideology in Victorian Culture. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995).
225. "London Life among The Million: Tenemented Dwellings of the Better Class," Builder 22 (January 2, 1864): 13.
226. Robert Kerr, Paper delivered on December 3, 1866. RIBA Proceedings (1866-67): 37-47.
227. John Nelson Tarn has offered a valuable chronicle of the philanthropic housing movement in Five Per Cent Philanthropy: An Account of Housing in Urban Areas between 1840 and 1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973).
228. Tarn notes that the "Exhibition cottages established a standard of accommodation which Roberts and the Society [for Improving the Conditions of the Labouring Classes] thought should constitute a norm." Five Per Cent Philanthropy, 21.
229. "Discussion of Professor Kerr's Paper-'On the Problem of Providing Dwellings for the Poor,' " RIBA Proceedings (1866-67): 48.
230. See Daunton's discussion of housing and "social definition." Daunton remarks that a "society based on achievement required strict rules to legitimate social relationships," rules that can determine the provision of housing. "Housing," in The Cambridge Social History of Britain, ed. F.M.L. Thompson, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 212-13.
231. Henry Roberts, Letter received January 30, 1867, Royal Institute of British Architects Archive, London.
232. Henry Roberts, The Dwellings of the Labouring Classes (London: Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes, 1850), a paper first read to the Royal Institute of British Architects, January 21, 1850.
233. Gareth Stedman Jones, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationships between the Classes in Victorian Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971).
234. Dinah Mulock Craik, A Woman's Thoughts about Women (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1858), 331.
235. J. Hain Friswell, The Gentle Life: Essays in Aid of the Formation of Character, 2 vols. (London: Sampson Low, Son, and Marston, 1864), 1:129.
236. The Letters of Queen Victoria, ed. Arthur Christopher Benson and Viscount Escher, 3 vols. (New York: Longmans, Green, 1907), 3:557, 556.
237. "Proposed National Memorial to His Royal Highness the Prince Consort," Minutes of a Public Meeting Held at Mansion House, January 14, 1862, British Library MS. BM10805 C22, London.
238. Margaret Oliphant, "The Domestic Life of the Queen," in The Life and Times of Queen Victoria, ed. Robert Wilson, 2 vols. (London: Cassell, 1900), 1:112.
239. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition,' c. 1820-1977," in The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 119.
240. Dinah Mulock Craik, Mistress and Maid, 2 vols. (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1863), 1:104-5.
241. Dora Greenwell, "Our SingleWomen," North British Review 36 (February 1862): 73.
242. Anthony Trollope, Can You Forgive Her? (London: J. M. Dent, 1994), 604.
243. Michael Anderson, "The Social Position of Spinsters in Mid-Victorian Britain," Journal of Family History 9, no. 4 (Winter 1984): 387.
244. See also Anderson's detailed study of the statistical record in "The Social Implications of Demographic Change," in Cambridge Social History of Britain, ed. F.M.L. Thompson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 2:1-70.
245. Poovey remarks that "The one anomaly that legislators were by and large unwilling to rectify or even consider. was the sexual double standard." Uneven Developments, 60.
246. See Thais E. Morgan's discussion of the disparity between the number of divorce suits filed and the sensational treatment in the press. "Afterword: Victorian Scandals, Victorian Strategies," in Victorian Scandals: Representations of Gender and Class, ed. Kristine Ottesen Garrigan (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1992), 293-94.
247. Anthony Trollope, The Small House at Allington (1980; reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 158, 160.
248. William Gladstone, "The Bill for Divorce," Quarterly Review 102, no. 203 (July 1857): 284.
249. Consider Poovey's remark that "in acknowledging the fact of marital unhappiness [the debates] inevitably exposed the limitations of the domestic ideal." Uneven Developments, 52.
250. Lord John Manners was not alone in complaining of the "hurried consideration bestowed upon the bill" and blaming the government, which "called upon the House to sit, at the end of August, from noon to midnight to consider a question of such vast importance" (Hansard, August 17, 1857, col. 1720).
251. Rev. E. B. Pusey, A Letter on the Proposed Change in the Laws Prohibiting Marriages between Those Near of Kin (Oxford: John Henry Parker, 1842), 17 (reprinted from the British Magazine, November 1840).
252. For the historical reconstruction of post- 1857 divorce patterns, see O. R. McGregor, Divorce in England (London: Heinemann, 1957).
253. and the revisionary analysis of Gail L. Savage, " 'Intended Only for the Husband': Gender, Class, and the Provision for Divorce in England, 1858-1868," in Garrigan, Victorian Scandals: Representations of Gender and Class, 11-42.
254. Consider here Morgan's suggestion that "Rather than a cycle of revolt and repression, the itinerary of scandal seems to move from protest, to dissemination, and then to assimilation of dissenting opinions and deviant behaviors, making these, in turn, the next 'norm' to be broken." "Afterword," 311.
255. "An Old Bachelor," Divorce: A Sketch (London: A. W. Bennett, 1859).
256. Thus as the debate reached its end, Mr. Spooner commented that, "With regard to the Bill itself, he must once for all declare that it completely failed in one great act of justice, namely, in not giving the injured and innocent wife as full, easy and complete a remedy as was offered to the injured and innocent husband." Hansard, August 25, 1857, col. 2087.
257. "Husbands, Wives, Fathers, Mothers," Blackwood's Magazine 71 (January 1852): 74.
258. "Widow-Burning-Major Ludlow," Quarterly Review 89 (September 1851): 263, 262.
259. Poovey, Uneven Developments, 62-70.
260. Joseph Noel Paton, In Memoriam, private collection.
261. Charles Dickens to Angela Burdett-Coutts, The Letters of Charles Dickens, vol. 8, ed. Graham Storey and Kathleen Tillotson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 459.
262. Charles Dickens and Wilkie Collins, "The Perils of Certain English Prisoners," Household Words, December 7, 1857 (extra Christmas issue), 10.
263. R. M. Coopland, A Lady's Escape from Gwalior and Life in the Fort of Agra during the Mutinies of 1857 (London: Smith, Elder, 1959).
264. Although most of the examples sort into the class of ephemeral productions contrived by eager authors and canny publishers, it is worth remembering that a novel that escapes her notice, the self-consciously magisterial Romola, also belongs to the same strange efflorescence. Jeanne Fahnestock, "Bigamy: The Rise and Fall of a Convention," Nineteenth-Century Fiction 36 (June 1981): 47-71.
265. Geraldine Jewsbury, Athenaeum (December 3, 1864): 743-44, as quoted in Fahnestock, "Bigamy," 57.
266. Mary E. Braddon, Lady Audley's Secret (1987; reprint, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 85.
267. See Fahnestock, "Bigamy," 66.
268. David Skilton, Introduction to Lady Audley's Secret.
269. Mary E. Braddon, Aurora Floyd (New York: Lovell, Coryell, 1885), 350.
270. Mrs. Henry Wood, East Lynne (Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton, 1993), 675.
271. Two prominent critiques were by Margaret Oliphant, "Sensation Novels," Blackwood's 91 (1862): 464-84.
272. H. L. Mansel, "Sensation Novels," Quarterly Review 133 (1863): 481-514.
273. See D. A. Miller's Recovery of the body of sensationalism, The Novel and the Police (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 146-91.
274. Thomas Boyle emphasizes the contemporaneity of the plot in his reading of Lady Audley. See Black Swine in the Sewers of Hampstead: Beneath the Surface of Victorian Sensationalism (New York: Viking, 1989), 145-58.
275. On this point, see Elaine Showalter's fine essay, "Family Secrets and Domestic Subversion: Rebellion in the Novels of the 1860s," in The Victorian Family: Structure and Stresses, ed. Anthony S. Wohl (London: Croom Helm, 1978), 101-16.
276. William Cohen, Sex Scandal: The Private Parts of Victorian Fiction (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 6.
277. Ann Cvetkovich discusses professionalism and the novel in Mixed Feelings, 56-60.
278. Kucich, The Power of Lies: 106-8.
279. Elaine Showalter, "Desperate Remedies: Sensation Novels of the 1860s," Victorian Newsletter, no. 49 (Spring 1976): 4.
280. Margaret Oliphant, Salem Chapel (London: Virago, 1986), 6.
281. James Fitzjames Stephen, "Luxury," Cornhill 2 (1860): 350.
282. Charles Dickens, Our Mutual Friend, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), bk. 1, ch. 11.
283. Charles Dickens, Barnaby Rudge, Oxford Illustrated Dickens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), ch. 55.