Lost words: Narratives of language and the brain, 1825-1926

Lost Words: Narratives of Language and the Brain, 1825-1926

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-241

  Jacyna, L S ^a  

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References (507)

1. For useful collections of some of the major texts in this literature see: H. Hecaen and J. Dubois, La naissance de la neuropsychologie du langage 1825-1865 (Paris: Flammarion, 1969).
2. Paul Eling, Reader in the History of Aphasia: From [Franz] Gall to [Norman] Geschwind (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1994).
3. For an excellent discussion of the various forms of concern with linguistic questions in recent historiography see: Penelope J. Corfield, "Introduction: Historians and Language," in idem (ed.), Language, History and Class (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), pp. 1-29.
4. For a perceptive account of how an emphasis upon symbolic resources-linguistic and otherwise-is fully compatible with a historical materialism see: Raphael Samuel, "Reading the Signs," History Workshop 31-32 (1991): 88-109, especially pp. 104-5.
5. Susan C. Lawrence, Charitable Knowledge: Hospital Pupils and Practitioners in Eighteenth- Century London (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 23.
6. For an example of how new ways of writing formed an integral part of the development of innovatory medical practices see: Jacalyn Duffin, To See with a Better Eye: A Life of R. T. H. Laennec (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 141.
7. This is incidentally to discount the notion that the generation of knowledge is an immaterial, transcendent process. These dichotomies are considered in Christopher Lawrence and Steven Shapin, Science Incarnate: Historical Embodiments of Natural Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), especially p. 4.
8. For an exposition of this extreme Foucauldian antihumanist position see: David Armstrong, "Bodies of Knowledge/Knowledge of Bodies," in Colin Jones and Roy Porter (eds.), Reassessing Foucault: Power, Medicine and the Body (London: Routledge, 1994), 17-27, pp. 21-22.
9. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, translated by Alan Sheridan, (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), p. 189.
10. For an account of the development of record making as an integral aspect of neurological work see: Christopher G. Goetz, Michael Bonduelle, and Toby Gelfand, Charcot: Constructing Neurology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 67-68.
11. See the remarks in: Patrick Joyce, Democratic Subjects: The Self and the Social in Nineteenth- Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 4-5.
12. I use this term to refer loosely to the full gamut of language disorders derived from injury to the brain. In fact, few sufferers are altogether deprived of speech, and various aspects of language other than speech can also be affected.
13. Gill Edelman and Robert Greenwood, Jumbly Words, and Rights Where Wrongs Should Be: The Experience of Aphasia from the Inside (Kibworth: Far Communications, 1992), pp. 83, 98-99, 119.
14. For other firsthand narratives see: David Knox, Portrait of Aphasia (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1971).
15. Helen HarlanWulf, Aphasia, MyWorld Alone (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1979).
16. A more recent collection makes the assumption that the recollections of physicians and neuroscientists who have themselves suffered from some neurological condition are of special value: Narinder Kapur, Injured Brains of Medical Minds: Views from Within (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). See pp. 49-116 for firsthand accounts of aphasia. It is notable that these narratives are not allowed to speak for themselves; an editorial "commentary" is appended to each patient's account.
17. On the role of narrative construction in medical work see: Kathryn Montgomery Hunter, Doctor's Stories: The Narrative Structure of Medical Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
18. Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979) stresses the central importance of documents in the everyday life of modern laboratory science; see especially pp. 52-53.
19. On how narrative structures shape medical investigation see: Allan Young, The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 169-70, 190.
20. Friedrich Nietzsche, "On Truth and Falsity in their Ultramodern Sense," in The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, edited by Oscar Levy, vol. 2 (London: T. N. Foulis, 1911), p. 179.
21. I pass over the various other social processes by which any particular view of reality is established as the basis for a program of research. For some suggestive comments see: Young, Harmony of Illusions, pp. 102-3, 121-24.
22. Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud, "Discussion sur la faculté du langage articulé," Bullétin de l'Académie Impériale de Médecine 30 (1864-65): 575-638, on p. 594.
23. For extended discussions of the instability of the distinctions between figurative and referential language in scientific texts see: Andrew E. Benjamin, Geoffrey N. Cantor, and John R. R. Christie (eds.), The Figural and the Literal: Problems of Language in the History of Science and Philosophy, 1630-1800 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987).
24. Bouillaud, "Discussion," p. 605.
25. For a general discussion of metaphor in the history of psychology and the neurosciences see: John C. Marshall, "Minds, Machines and Metaphors," Social Studies of Science 7 (1977): 475-488.
26. I forgo the opportunity to tease out the many other interesting features of this passage. What are we, for instance, to make of the phrase "holy alliance," an apparent allusion to a political configuration from the recent past that was repugnant to Bouillaud's party?.
27. Richard Rorty has, for instance, shown how the whole of Western metaphysics rest on a suppressed metaphor, namely, the supposed analogy between knowledge and perception: Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), pp. 159-63.
28. Nietzsche, "On Truth," p. 178.
29. It is worth noting in passing that the linguist, Roman Jakobson, used the figure of the metaphor, and of the contrasting trope of metonymy, in his efforts to arrive at a classification of the language deficits characteristic of different forms of aphasia: "Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbance," in Selected Writings, vol. 2 (The Hague: Mouton, 1971), pp. 239-59.
30. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975).
31. I am of course aware of the exclusions involved in the assumption that "man" represented the whole of humanity. On this partiality of vision see: Ornella Moscucci, The Science ofWoman: Gynaecology and Gender in England 1800-1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 31-32. The aphasic is to be considered as a damaged version of this distinctly masculine construct.
32. See the remarks on "phonocentrism" in Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1976), pp. 11-12.
33. See the suggestive comments in: Derek Attridge, Peculiar Language: Literature as Difference from the Renaissance to James Joyce (London: Methuen, 1988), pp. 160-62.
34. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Routledge, 1974), p. 313.
35. On the corporealization of vision during this period see: Jonathan Crary, Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), especially pp. 70-71, 79-81.
36. Foucault, Order, p. 352.
37. W. G. Eliasberg, "A Contribution to the Prehistory of Aphasia," Journal of the History of Medicine 5 (1950): 96-101, p. 96.
38. William A. Hammond, A Treatise on the Diseases of the Nervous System, 8th ed., (New York: D. Appleton, 1886), p. 183.
39. A. Trousseau, "Sur la faculté du langage articulé," Bullétin de l'Académie Impériale de Médecine 30 (1864-65): 659-675, on pp. 660-661.
40. A. Trousseau, Clinique médicale de l'Hôtel-Dieu de Paris (Paris: Baillière, 1865), p. 593.
41. On Gall's "organology" see: Edwin Clarke and L. S. Jacyna, Nineteenth-Century Origins of Neuroscientific Concepts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), pp. 220-44.
42. This particular contest has received a good deal of attention. See: Francis Schiller, Paul Broca: Founder of French Anthropology, Explorer of the Brain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 193-97.
43. Daniel Roe and Stanley Finger, "Gustave Dax and his Fight for Recognition: An Overlooked Chapter in the Early History of Cerebral Dominance," Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 1996, 5: 228-40.
44. Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud, "Sur la faculté du langage articulé," Bullétin de l'Académie Impériale de Médecine 30 (1864-65): 584.
45. Charles Féré, "Des troubles de l'usage des signes," Revue philosophique 17 (1884): 593- 606, on pp. 595-596.
46. For a similar vindication of Broca's claims against the pretensions of others (including Bouillaud) see: Désiré Bernard, De l'aphasie et de ses diverses formes (Paris: Lecrosnier et Babé, 1889), pp. 8-9.
47. Féré's analogy between aphasia and the emergence of a scientific understanding of the symptoms of hysteria had extensive implications. For the cultural and political import of hysteria studies in late nineteenth-century France see: Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 371-74.
48. Carl Wernicke, "The Aphasia Symptom Complex: A Psychological Study on an Anatomical Basis," in Gertrude H. Eggert (ed.), Wernicke's Works on Aphasia: A Sourcebook and Review (The Hague: Mouton, 1977), p. 100.
49. M. Allen Starr, "Discussion of Cerebral Localization: Aphasia," Transactions of the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons (New Haven: The Congress, 1889), p. 330.
50. Henry Head, "Aphasia: An Historical Review," Brain 43 (1920): 390-411, on p. 390.
51. Head considerably expanded his history of the discipline in a later monograph: Aphasia and Kindred Disorders of Speech, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926), vol. 1, pp. 1-141.
52. Walther Riese, "Dynamics in Brain Lesions," in Selected Papers on the History of Aphasia (Amsterdam: Swets, 1977), pp. 70-85.
53. Norman Geschwind, "The Paradoxical Position of Kurt Goldstein in the History of Aphasia," in Selected Papers on Language and the Brain (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1974), pp. 62- 72, on pp. 62-63.
54. Corfield notes: "that language works through domination is open to challenge. Linguistic communication may equally encompass cooperation, convergence, and community." "Introduction," p. 24.
55. Language can, however, function in both these modes depending on an individual's, or a category of individuals, situation within a discourse. See also Mario Biagioli's discussion of the role of discrete linguistic codes in the establishment of coherent and viable scientific communities: Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 241-44.
56. Jacques Lordat, "Analyse de la parole pour servir à la théorie de divers cas d'ALALIE et de PARALALIE (de mutisme et d'imperfection du parler) que les nosologistes ont mal connu," Journal de la Société de Médecine-Pratique de Montpellier 7 (1843): 333-353; 417- 433, p. 347.
57. Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud, "Recherches cliniques propres à démontrer que la perte de la parole correspond à la lésion des lobules antérieurs du cerveau, et à confirmer l'opinion de M. GALL, sur le siège de l'organe du langage articulé," Archives Générales de Médecine 8 (1825): 25-45, p. 30.
58. Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud, Traité clinique et physiologique de l'encéphalite, ou inflammation du cerveau, et de ses suites, telles que le ramollissement, la suppuration, les abcès, les tubercules, le squirrhe, le cancer, etc. (Paris: J.-B. Baillière, 1825).
59. idem, "Exposition de nouveaux faits à l'appui de l'opinion qui localise dans les lobules antérieures du cerveau le principe législateur de la parole; examen préliminaire des objections dont cette opinion a été le sujet," Bullétin de l'Académie Royale de Médecine 4 (1839-40): 282-328.
60. idem, "Recherches cliniques propres à démontrer que le sens du langage articulé et le principe coordinateur des mouvements de la parole résident dans les lobules antérieurs du cerveau," Bull. Acad. Roy. de Méd. 1er trimestre (1848): 699-719.
61. Lordat, "Analyse," pp. 333-335.
62. H. Hecaen and J. Dubois, La naissance de la neuropsychologie du langage 1825-1865 (Paris: Flammarion, 1969), p. 168.
63. See, for example: Anne Harrington, Medicine, Mind, and the Double Brain: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Thought (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1987), pp. 54-55.
64. Otto M. Marx, "Aphasia Studies and Language Theory in the 19th Century," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40 (1966): 328-349, p. 337.
65. Samuel H. Greenblatt, "Hughlings Jackson's First Encounter with the Work of Paul Broca: The Physiological and Philosophical Background," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 44 (1970): 555-570, on p. 569.
66. See: Kathryn Montgomery Hunter, Doctors' Stories: The Narrative Structure of Medical Knowledge (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1991).
67. M. M. Bakhtin, "The Problem of Speech Genres," in Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, trans. Vern W. McGee, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), pp. 60-102, on pp. 80-81.
68. Lordat, "Analyse," p. 334.
69. On the role of temporal succession in the constitution of the modern self see: Huck Gutman, "Rousseau's Confessions: A Technology of the Self," in Luther H. Martin, Huck Gutman, Patrick H. Hutton (eds.), Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault (Amherst: University of Massachussetts Press, 1988), pp. 99-120, pp. 100-101.
70. Lordat, "Analyse," p. 345.
71. On Paris Medicine see: Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1967).
72. Russell C. Maulitz, Morbid Appearances: The Anatomy of Pathology in the Early Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
73. Caroline Hannaway and Ann La Berge, Rethinking Paris Medicine (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999).
74. Svetlana Alpers, The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century (London: Penguin Books, 1989), p. xxv. Lordat wrote on the visual arts and their relevance to medical education.
75. On Lordat's attempt to assert the claims of the Montpellier tradition against the hegemonic pretensions of Parisian medical culture see: Elizabeth A. Williams, The Physical and the Moral: Anthropology, Physiology, and Philosophical Medicine in France, 1750-1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 136-140.
76. Jacques Lordat, Essai d'une caractéristique de l'enseignement médicale de Montpellier, développée dans les quatre premières lecogonekons du cours de physiologie de l'année scolaire 1841-1842 (Paris: J.-B. Baillière, 1843), p. 6.
77. On Barthez' vitalism see: Francogonekois Duchesneau, "Vitalism in Late Eighteenth-Century Physiology: The Cases of Barthez, Blumenbach and John Hunter," in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 260-269.
78. Lordat, Essai d'une caractéristique, p. 11.
79. Jacques Lordat, Essai sur l'iconologie médicale, ou sur les rapports d'utilité qui existent entre l'art du dessin et l'étude de la médecine (Montpellier: Picot, 1833), p. 48.
80. The best account of Broussais and his school is found in: Jean-Francogonekois Braunstein, Broussais et le matérialisme: médecine et philosophie au XIXe siècle (Paris: Méridiens Klincksieck, 1986).
81. Jacques Lordat, Lecogonekons de physiologie, extraites du cours fait à la faculté de Médecine de Montpellier, dans le semèstre de 1835 à 1836 (Paris: Baillière, 1837), pp. 13-14.
82. I have considered the relations between medical and political philosophy in post-revolutionary France more fully in: "Medical Science and Moral Science: The Cultural Relations of Physiology in Restoration France," History of Science 25 (1987): 111-46.
83. Lordat, Lecogonekons, pp. 284-285.
84. Jacques Lordat,é bauche du plan d'un traité complète de physiologie humaine, adressée à M. Caizergues, doyen de la Faculté de Médecine de Montpellier (Montpellier: Castel, 1841), pp. 10-11.
85. Lordat later acknowledged this affinity with Bonald's thought: Jacques Lordat, Idée pittoresque de la physiologie humain médicale enseignée à Montpellier (Montpellier: Ricard Frères, 1849), pp. 16-17.
86. For an outline of Bonaldian philosophy see: W. Jay Reedy, "Lan guage, Counter-Revolution and the 'Two Cultures': Bonald's Traditionalist Scientism," Journal of the History of Ideas 44 (1983): 579-97.
87. Lordat,é bauche, p. 114.
88. It is in this context worth drawing attention to the master/servant motif that figures in Lordat's case histories.
89. Bouillaud, Traité, pp. v-vi.
90. Marc-Antoine Petit, Collection d'observations cliniques (Lyon: Amable Leroy, 1815), p. 285.
91. Léon Rostan, Recherches sur le ramollissement du cerveau; ouvrage dans lequel on s'efforce de distinguer les diverses affections de ce viscère par des signes caractéristiques, 2nd ed., (Paris: Béchet, 1823), pp. 3-4.
92. For the Cartesian roots of this concept of the subject see: Dalai Judovitz, Subjectivity and Representation in Descartes: The Origins of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
93. On the aspirations of the emergent case history to the status of objective truth see: Susan C. Lawrence, Charitable Knowledge: Hospital Pupils and Practitioners in Eighteenth- Century London (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 313-14, 341.
94. Mikhail Bakhtin, Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, trans. Caryl Emerson (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1984), p. 7.
95. Conversely, Lawrence Rothfield has argued that the narrator of the nineteenth-century novel exercises a form of medical panopticism: Vital Signs: Medical Realism in Nineteenth- Century Fiction (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), especially p. 40.
96. Martin Jay, Downcast Eyes: The Denigration of Vision in Twentieth-Century French Thought (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), pp. 61-63.
97. Jay notes that much of the success of rational perspective can be attributed to its affinities with the new scientific world-view.
98. Rostan, Recherches, p. 258.
99. See: Thomas W. Laqueur, "Bodies, Details, and the Humanitarian Narrative," in The New Cultural History, ed. Lynn Hunt (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1989), 176-204, esp. p. 178.
100. Rostan, Recherches, pp. 263-264.
101. Compare the discussion of the various degrees of integrity allowed to differently ranked forms of reported speech in: Valentin Nikolaevic Volosinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, trans. Ladislav Matejka and I. R. Titunik (New York: Seminar Press, 1973), pp. 119-23.
102. Rostan, Recherches, p. 295.
103. On the diminished significance of patients' own accounts of their illness see: Mary E. Fissell, "The Disappearance of the Patient's Narrative and the Invention of Hospital Medicine," in British Medicine in an Age of Reform, ed. Roger French and AndrewWear (London: Routledge, 1991), pp. 92-109.
104. Rostan, Recherches, pp. 433-434.
105. All the patients in the cases discussed are female. A hospital patient's sex did not, however, determine the way in which he or she was represented in the record; male patients were subjected to similar treatment.
106. Pierre Flourens, Recherches expérimentales sur les propriétés et les fonctions du système nerveux, dans les animaux vertébrés (Paris: Crevot, 1824).
107. Flourens was by this time also a vehement opponent of Gall's doctrine of organology. See: Edwin Clarke and L. S. Jacyna, Nineteenth-Century Origins of Neuroscientific Concepts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), pp. 267-68.
108. Bouillaud, "Recherches," pp. 25-26.
109. See the distinction between author, writer, and narrator in: Dominick LaCapra, "Madame Bovary" on Trial (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1982), p. 63.
110. Bouillaud, "Recherches," p. 40.
111. Gyorgy Markus, "Why Is There No Hermeneutics of Natural Sciences? Some Preliminary Theses," Science in Context 1 (1987): 5-51, especially pp. 12-13.
112. John Hennen, Principles of Military Surgery, Comprising Observations on the Arrangement, Police, and Practice of Hospitals, and on the History,Treatment, and Anomalies of Variola and Syphilis (Edinburgh: Archibald Constable, 1820), pp. 305-6.
113. For an account of the introduction of these new priorities into the Parisian hospitals in the aftermath of the Revolution see: Dora B.Weiner, The Citizen-Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 149-51.
114. In the rare instance where a patient is ascribed something approximating to selfhood, he is significantly of a higher social status than the common hospital patient. See the case of "Captain Thavernier": Bouillaud, Traité, pp. 125-127. Cf. the case of the "militaire" recorded on pp. 128-129.
115. Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (London: Tavistock Publications, 1973), p. 85.
116. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Tavistock Publications, 1970), pp. 294-95.
117. Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud, "Recherches cliniques propres à démontrer que la perte de la parole correspond à la lésion des lobules antérieurs du cerveau, et à confirmer l'opinion de M. GALL, sur le siège de l'organe du langage articulé," Archive générales de médecine 8 (1825): 25-45.
118. G. J. Guthrie, On Injuries of the Head affecting the Brain (London: John Churchill, 1842), p. 46.
119. In later publications Broca elaborated upon this initial claim arguing that the organ of language was represented unilaterally. See: Anne Harrington, Medicine, Mind, and the Double Brain: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), pp. 75-77.
120. See: Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and his World, trans. Helene Iswolsky (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1968).
121. idem, Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, trans. Caryl Emerson, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984).
122. Because of "carnival's" association, especially in Bakhtin's work, with specifically proletarian cultural forms, the concept of "symbolic inversion" as developed by Barbara Babcock may be more apposite: Barbara A. Babcock, The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978), pp. 13-36.
123. For a discussion of the presence of grotesque elements in Darwin's writings see: Donald Ulin, "A Clerisy of Worms in Darwin's Inverted World," Victorian Studies, 35 (1991-92): 295-308.
124. Peter Gay, The Cultivation of Hatred: The Bourgeois Experience Victorian to Freud Volume III (London: Harper Collins, 1993), chapter 5.
125. Francogonekois René de Chateaubriand, Génie du christianisme, ed. Maurice Regard (Paris: Gallimard, 1978), p. 614.
126. René Descartes, Oeuvres de Descartes, ed. Charles Adam and Paul Tannery, 11 vols in 13, (Paris: J. Vrin, 1973), vol. 6, pp. 56-57.
127. [Geraud] de Cordemoy, Dissertations physiques sur le discernement du corps & de l'ame: sur la parole, et sur le système de Monsieur Descartes, 3rd ed., 2 vols. (Paris: Veuve de Denis Nion, 1690), vol. 2, p. [vii].
128. Nicolas Beauzée, "Langue," in Encyclopédie méthodique. Gramaire et littérature, 3 vols., (Paris: Panckoucke, 1784), vol. 2, p. 410.
129. [Antoine] Court de Gébelin, Histoire naturelle de la parole, ou grammaire universelle à l'usage des jeunes gens, 2nd ed. (Paris: Plancher, 1816), pp. 2-4.
130. Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald, Recherches philosophiques sur les premiers objets des connoissances morales, 3rd ed., 2 vols. (Paris: Adrien le Clere, 1838), vol. 1, pp. 121-122.
131. For the early history of linguistics see: Hans Aarsleff, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History (London: Athlone Press, 1982).
132. The Study of Language in England 1780-1860 (London: Athlone Press, 1983).
133. R. H. Robins, A Short History of Linguistics (London: Longman, 1967).
134. R. Harris and T. J. Taylor, Landmarks in Linguistic Thought: The Western Tradition from Socrates to Saussure (London: Routledge, 1989).
135. Ernst Renan, De l'origine du langage (Paris: Michel, Lévy, Frères, 1858), pp. 87-88.
136. Karl Ferdinand Becker, Organism der Sprache (Frankfurt am Main: G. F. Kettembeil, 1841), pp. 1-2.
137. Renan, De l'origine, p. 39.
138. Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse, System der Sprachwissenschaft (Berlin: Ferd. Dümmler, 1856), p. 46.
139. Johann Peter Süssmilch, Versuch eines Beweises, dass die erste Sprache ihren Ü rsprung nicht vom Menschen, sondern allein vom Schöpfer erhalten haben (Berlin: Buchladen der Realschule, 1766), pp. iii-iv; see also pp. 103-104.
140. [Johann Gottfried von] Herder, Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache (Berlin: C. F. Voss, 1772), p. 157.
141. J. J. Virey, Histoire naturelle du genre humain, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (Brussels: Aug. Wahlen, 1826), vol. 1, pp. 3, 10.
142. V. N. Voloshinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language (New York: Seminar Press, 1973), pp. 74-75.
143. Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (New York: Harvester Press, 1989), pp. 19-42.
144. Bouillaud, "Recherches cliniques," p. 25.
145. Franz-Joseph Gall, Anatomie et physiologie du système nerveux en générale, et du cerveau en particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilité de reconnaître plusiers dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des animaux, par la configuration du leurs têtes, 4 vols. (Paris: N. Maze, 1818-19), vol. 4, p. 58.
146. Virey, Histoire naturelle, p. 75.
147. Bouillaud, "Recherches cliniques," p. 40.
148. J.-B. Bouillaud, "Exposition de nouveaux faits à l'appui de l'opinion qui localise dans les lobules antérieures du cerveau le principe législateur de la parole; examen préliminaire des objections dont cette opinion a été le sujet," Bullétin de l'Académie Royale de Médecine 4 (1839-40): 282-328, p. 283.
149. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The German Ideology (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1964), p. 41.
150. J.-B. Bouillaud, "Recherches expérimentales sur les fonctions du cerveau (lobes cérébraux) en général, et sur celles de sa portion antérieure en particulier," Journal de Physiologie expérimentale et pathologique 10 (1830): 36-98, pp. 97-98.
151. Gay, Cultivation of Hatred, p. 248.
152. Edward Timms, Karl Kraus Apocalyptic Satirist: Culture and Catastrophe in Habsburg Vienna (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 28, 124-128.
153. Robert J. Bezucha, "Masks of Revolution: A Study of Popular Culture during the Second French Republic," in Roger Price (ed.), Revolution and Reaction: 1848 and the Second French Republic (London: Croom Helm, 1975), pp. 236-253.
154. See: Peter McPhee, A Social History of France, 1780-1880 (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 187.
155. Francis Schiller, Paul Broca: Founder of French Anthropology, Explorer of the Brain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), p. 279.
156. Joy Harvey, "Evolutionism Transformed: Positivists and Materialists in the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris from Second Empire to Third Republic," in David Oldroyd (ed.), TheWider Domain of Evolutionary Thought (London: Reidel, 1983), pp. 289-310.
157. M. Hammond, "Anthropology as a Weapon of Social Combat in late-Nineteenth-Century France," Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences 16 (1980): 118-32.
158. For a more general discussion of the agenda of the Société see: Elizabeth A. Williams, "The Science of Man: Anthropological Thought and Institutions in Nineteenth-Century France," Indiana University PhD, 1983, chapter 3.
159. Claude Nicolet, L'idée républicaine en France (1789-1924): Essai d'histoire critique (Paris: Gallimard, 1982), p. 11.
160. This conflict between what were effectively rival worldviews can be traced back to the attack upon the cosmological foundations of the old regime that occurred during the French Revolution; for an illuminating discussion see: Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 87-88.
161. Maurice Agulhon, Marianne into Battle: Republican Imagery and Symbolism in France, 1789-1880 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 38-39, 82.
162. Theodore Zeldin, France 1848-1945: Politics and Anger (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 130.
163. Nicolet, L'idée républicaine, p. 11.
164. Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris 2 (1861): 77.
165. Bulletins, pp. 252-253.
166. Louis Grandeau, Pierre Gratiolet: Sa vie et travaux (Paris: J. Hetzel, 1865), p. 6.
167. Bulletins, p. 252.
168. Bulletins, p. 274.
169. For a discussion of the ideological ramifications of this metaphor see: Roger J. Cooter, The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science: Phrenology and the Organization of Consent in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 111-112.
170. For Flourens' doctrines see: Edwin Clarke and L. S. Jacyna, Nineteenth-Century Origins of Neuroscientific Concepts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), pp. 250-253.
171. Bulletins, p. 79.
172. Paul Broca, "Remarques sur le siège de la faculté du langage articulé, suivies d'une observation d'aphémie (perte de la parole)," Bulletins de la Société Anatomique de Paris 6 (1861): 326-57.
173. The patient's name was Leborgne; however, he became known as "Tan" after the only syllable he was able to enunciate. For an account of the case see: Schiller, Paul Broca, pp. 181-86.
174. Bulletins, p. 422.
175. The question of whether aphemia signified a lesion of the "higher" intellectual faculties or was merely a motor disorder was one which exercised Broca: "Remarques," pp. 333-37.
176. Quoted in Marshall Berman, All That is Solid Melts Into Air (New York: Penguin, 1988), p. 115.
177. Edward Meyrick Goulburn, "Preface," to Frederick Bateman, Darwinism Tested by Language (London: Rivingtons, 1877), pp. xx-xxi.
178. Zeldin, France, p. 22.
179. Bulletins, p. 173.
180. In a later debate Broca also displayed a yearning to retain language's special status as a signifier of man's special and superior status within the animal creation. See: Harrington, Medicine, pp. 50-51.
181. Bulletins, pp. 166, 172, 174, 176.
182. It has been argued that all "carnivalesque" events serve to reinforce the hierarchies they apparently subvert. On this point see: Janet Beizer, Ventriloquizing Bodies: Narratives of Hysteria in Nineteenth-Century France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 217.
183. The establishment of an organ of language in the brain can also be viewed as a crucial moment in the process of the very constitution of "man" as an entity within whose body the physiological and anatomical conditions of knowledge were inscribed. See the remarks in: Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (London: Tavistock, 1970), p. 319.
184. "Discussion sur la facultedu langage articule," Bulletin de l'Academie Imperiale de Me-decine 30 (1864-65): 173. Louis Francisque Lelut, Qu'est-ce que la phrenologie? Ou essai sur la significance et la valeur des systemes de psychologie en general, et de celui de Gall en particulier.
185. On the generation of the conventions defining valid forms of scientific prose see: Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), pp. 62-65.
186. "Discussion," pp. 580-581.
187. "Discussion on the Localization of Function in the Cortex Cerebri," Transactions of the International Medical Congress, 4 vols. (London: J. W. Kolckmann, 1881), vol. 1, pp. 218-241.
188. Charles A. Ballance, A Glimpse into the History of the Surgery of the Brain (London: Macmillan, 1922), pp. 89-90.
189. Michel Foucault, "Truth and Power," in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980), p. 112.
190. M. Allen Starr, "Aphasia," Transactions of the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons 1 (1889): p. 879.
191. A. Trousseau, Clinique medicale de l'Hôtel-Dieu de Paris (Paris: Bailliere, 1865), p. 572.
192. See: Michael Hagner, "Aspects of Brain Localization in Late XIXth Century Germany," in Claude Debru (ed.), Essays in the History of the Physiological Sciences (Amsterdam: Clio Medical No. 33), pp.75-78.
193. James Russell, "Hemiplegia of the Right Side, with Loss of Speech," British Medical Journal 2 (1864): 81-85, 211-213, 239-241, 408-411, 619-621, p. 81.
194. William R. Sanders, "Case illustrating the Supposed Connexion of Aphasia (Loss of the Cerebral Faculty of Speech) with Right Hemiplegia, and Lesion of the External Left Frontal Convolution of the Brain," Edinburgh Medical Journal 11 (1866): 811-823, p. 822.
195. Alexander Robertson, "The Pathology of Aphasia," Journal of Mental Science 12 (1867): 503-521, pp. 503, 506.
196. Trousseau, Clinique medicale, pp. 610-611.
197. H. Charlton Bastian, A Treatise on Aphasia and Other Speech Defects (London: H.K. Lewis, 1898), pp. 307-311. For a somewhat shorter protocol for the clinical investigation of aphasia see: Starr, "Aphasia," p. 337. Such systems were the forerunners of later sets of test "batteries" to be applied rigorously to all cases of language loss. Henry Head's and Kurt Goldstein's contributions to the creation of such technologies are described elsewhere in this volume. Contemporary neurology has resort to such standardized diagnostic resources as the Boston Assessment of Severe Aphasia and similar systems.
198. This is evident in the clinical records of the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases in Queen's Square London: see, e.g., Bastian's Casebook for 1879, pp. 5-12, 215.
199. W. D. Halliburton, [Clinical Lectures at University College Hospital by H. Charlton Bastian, October 1882],Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine MS 2705, pp. 256-257.
200. See, for example, M. J. Dejerine, "Contribution a l'etude des troubles de l'ecriture chez les aphasiques," Comptes rendus des seances et memoires de la Societede Biologie 43 (1891): 97-113, pp. 101-108.
201. [Jean Martin] Charcot, "Des differentes formes de l'aphasie.-De la ceciteverbale," Le progres medicale 11 (1883): p. 443.
202. William Henry Broadbent, "On the Cerebral Mechanism of Speech and Thought," Medico-Chirurgical Transactions 55 (1872): 145-194, p. 156.
203. Russell, "Hemiplegia," pp. 409-410.
204. Sanders, "Case," p. 812.
205. Charcot, "Des differentes formes," pp. 522-523.
206. J. J. Dejerine, "Differentes varietes de ceciteverbale," Comptes rendus des seances et memoires de la Societede Biologie 44 (1892): 61-90, p. 74.
207. James Ross, On Aphasia: Being a Contribution to the Subject of the Dissolution of Speech from Cerebral Disease (London: J. & A. Churchill, 1887), p. 30.
208. "Discussion," p. 623.
209. For the distinction between primary and secondary genres see: M. M. Bakhtin, "The Problem of Speech Genres," in Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, trans. Vern W. McGee, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), pp. 60-102, on p. 62.
210. Frederic Bateman, "On Aphasia or Loss of Speech in Cerebral Disease," Journal of Mental Science 14 (1869): 50-74, 345-365, 489-504, p. 346.
211. Frederic Bateman, "Aphasia or Loss of Speech in Cerebral Disease," Journal of Mental Science 15 (1870): 102-119, 367-393, pp. 377-378.
212. See, for instance, Bastian's reinterpretation of cases of Trousseau and Lichtheimbearing on the question of alexia: H. Charlton Bastian, "Some Problems in Connexion with Aphasia and other Speech Defects," Lancet 1 (1897): 933-942, 1005-1017, 1131-1137, 1187-1194, pp. 1009-1010.
213. On the role of classic texts in the development of a scientific specialty see: Gyorgy Markus, "Why is there no Hermeneutics of Natural Sciences?: Some Preliminary Theses," Science in Context 1 (1987): 5-51, p. 35.
214. Bastian, "Some Problems," p. 1188.
215. Henry Maudsley, "Concerning Aphasia," Lancet 2 (1868): 690-692, 721-723, p. 690.
216. Trousseau, Clinique medicale, p. 615.
217. "Discussion," p. 618.
218. H. Charlton Bastian, "On the Various Forms of Loss of Speech in Cerebral Disease," British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review 43 (1869): 209-236, 470-492, p. 211.
219. For a review of the various classifications thrown up in the early years of aphasiology see: Bateman, "On Aphasia" (1869), pp. 494-495.
220. Maudlsey, "On Aphasia," p. 690.
221. See: H. Charlton Bastian, "On the Physiology of Thinking," Fortnightly Review 5n.s. (1869): 57-71.
222. Bastian, "On Aphasia," pp. 216-217.
223. Charcot's choice of phrase is probably an allusion to the positivist philosopher Theodule Ribot's attempts to introduce French readers to "la psychologie anglaise contemporaine." See: John I. Brooks, The Eclectic Legacy: Academic Philosophy and the Human Sciences in Nineteenth-Century France (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1998), p. 71.
224. Pierre Marie, "De l'aphasie en general et de l'agraphie en particulier, d'apres l'enseignement de M. le professeur Charcot," Le Progres Medicale 7 second series (1888): 81-84, pp. 81-82.
225. Carl Wernicke, "The Aphasia Symptom Complex: A Psychological Study on an Anatomical Basis," in Gertrude H. Eggert, Wernicke's Works on Aphasia: A Sourcebook and Review (The Hague: Mouton, 1977), p. 118 (38). This is a translation of Wernicke's Der aphasische Symptomencomplex: Eine psychologische Studie auf anatomischer Basis (Breslau: Max Cohn & Weigert, 1874). I have occasionally modified Eggert's translation. Numerals in parentheses in this and subsequent citations refer to the pages of the original German text.
226. On the various productive ambiguities of the term see: Jan Goldstein, "Foucault among the Sociologists: The 'Disciplines' and the History of the Professions," History and Theory 23 (1984): 170-192, especially pp. 178-179.
227. Wernicke, "Aphasia Symptom Complex," pp. 118-119 (38).
228. Cf. Nietzsche's discussion of the formulation of the idea of the primal "leaf." "On Truth and Falsity in their Ultramoral Sense," The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, ed. Oscar Levy (London: Allen and Unwin, 1911), vol. 2, pp. 173-192, on p. 179.
229. The most authoritative of these schema is found in: Pierre Gratiolet, Memoire sur les plis cerebraux de l'homme et des primates (Paris: Arthur Bertrand, 1854).
230. Depictions of the cortex were therefore images of a "typical" object. The history of the visual imagery employed in neurology and neurophysiology does not accord well with the secular tendency away from such representations of the type of a natural object that Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison have discerned: "The Image of Objectivity," Representations 40 (1992): 81-128.
231. Trousseau, Clinique medicale, pp. 598-599.
232. Frederic Bateman, "On Aphasia or Loss of Speech in Cerebral Disease," Journal of Mental Science 13 (1868): 521-532, p. 522.
233. Frederic Bateman, On Aphasia or Loss of Speech, and the Localisation of the Faculty of Articulate Language (London: John Churchill, 1870), p. 392.
234. Sanders, "Case," p. 822. Contributions which did not conform to "our present mode of dividing the brain" could be deemed invalid: Bateman, On Aphasia, p. 373.
235. Kenneth M'Leod, "Case of Degeneration and Atrophy of the Cerebrum, Causing Unilateral Epilepsy," Edinburgh Medical Journal 10 (1865): 323-338, p. 330.
236. Compare Martin Rudwick's discussion of the role of the creation of a shared visual language in the disciplinary consolidation of geology: "The Emergence of a Visual Language for Geological Science, 1760-1840," History of Science 14 (1976): 149-195, especially p. 177.
237. I take this term from: Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Forms of Scientific Visibility," Social Studies of Science 15 (1985): 37-66, p. 43.
238. J. M. Charcot, "De la localisation dans les maladies cerebrales," in Oeuvres Completes de J.M. Charcot (Paris: A. Delamaye, 1887), vol. 4, p. 3.
239. Henry Head, "Aphasia: An Historical Review," Brain 43 (1920): 390-411, on p. 396. Many of these diagrams are reproduced in: Francois Moutier, L'aphasie de Broca (Paris: G. Steinthal, 1908), pp. 32-60.
240. In resorting to such a schema aphasiology may have relied on assumptions of self-evidence deeply embodied in contemporary scientific culture. Michel Serres has maintained that models composed of the common elements of reservoirs and circulation were fundamental to "the entire set of interpretative organons in the nineteenth century." Hermes: Literature, Science, Philosophy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1989), p. 38. One obvious analogue is with the centers of production and distributive networks integral to the working of an industrial economy.
241. Bastian, "On the Physiology," p. 63.
242. Bastian, "Various Forms," p. 477.
243. W. H. Broadbent, "A Case of Peculiar Affection of Speech, with Commentary," Brain 1 (1879): 484-503. p. 490.
244. Bastian, Treatise, pp. 264-266.
245. H. Charlton Bastian, "On Different Kinds of Aphasia, With Special Reference to their Classification and Ultimate Pathology," British Medical Journal 2 (1887): 931-936, p. 933.
246. Sigmund Freud, Zur Auffassung der Aphasien. Einer kritische Studie (Leipzig: Franz Deuticke, 1891), p. 9. Freud refers here, in particular, to Wernicke's diagram. He goes on to note, however, that other diagrams, such as Lichtheim's, were too hypothetical to be thus superimposed upon the real structures of the brain.
247. Henry Head, Aphasia and Kindred Disorders of Speech, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926), vol. 1, pp. 56-57. Head went on to report that the findings of the autopsy that terminated this case were not favorable to Bastian's predictions.
248. Dejerine, "Contribution," p. 110.
249. Head, "Aphasia," p. 397.
250. Henry Head was to condemn the species of rationalism that underlay this genre of writing: "They failed to appreciate that the logical formulae of the intellect do not correspond absolutely to physical events and that the universe does not exist as an exercise for the human mind. To them an explanation that appealed directly to reason must of necessity correspond to the facts of observation; the form assumed by the manifestations of organic disease could be therefore confidently anticipated from study of a well considered diagram." Head, Aphasia, pp. 65-66.
251. Wernicke, "Aphasia Symptom Complex," pp. 97-98 (10-12). In later writings by Wernicke the schema he had developed to explain sensory aphasia served as a template for conceptualizing a wide range of psychic disorders. See: Mario Horst Lanczik, Helmut Beckmann, and Gundolf Keil, "Wernicke," in German Berrios and Roy Porter (eds.), A History of Clinical Psychiatry: The Origin and History of Psychiatric Disorders (London, Athlone Press, 1995), pp. 303-6.
252. Ludwig Lichtheim, "On Aphasia," Brain 7 (1885): 433-484, p. 433.
253. See, for instance, Wernicke, "Aphasia Symptom Complex," p. 107 (28).
254. Adolf Kussmaul, Die Storungen des Sprache. Versuch einer Pathologie der Sprache (Leipzig: F.C.W. Vogel, 1877), pp. 182-186. Cf. Head's remark that in Wernicke's work "the clinical forms of disordered speech are deduced from [the diagram] as from a figure in Euclid." Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, p. 62.
255. The mere fact that these "processes" were deemed subject to graphic representation is, of course, itself an aspect of this strategy of visualizing in order to survey and dominate; "the human eye and ability to form concepts, are [supposed to be] the eternal witnesses of all things." Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, translated by Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage Books, 1968), section 640.
256. On mathematization as a more general trope in scientific representation see: Michael Lynch, "The Externalized Retina and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in M. Lynch and S. Woolgar, Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990), pp. 169-170.
257. Frederic Bateman reported that "One of the most interesting features of this meeting [of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1868] was the discussion which followed the reading of papers on Aphasia by Dr. Hughlings Jackson, Mr Dunn, and M. Broca. The learned Parisian Professor, with great force and eloquence expounded before a British audience, his own peculiar views as to the seat of speech, illustrating his remarks by a coloured diagram, and a plaster cast. A most animated discussion ensued." Bateman, "On Aphasia," p. 495.
258. Bateman, On Aphasia, p. 141.
259. Carl Wernicke, "Aphasie und Geisteskrankheit," (1890) in Gesammelte Aufsatze und kritische Referate zur Pathologie des Nervensystems (Berlin: H. Kornfeld, 1893), p. 157.
260. Ross, On Aphasia, p. 89.
261. Bastian, "Some Problems," p. 1191.
262. Lichtheim, "On Aphasia," pp. 440-443.
263. John Wyllie, The Disorders of Speech (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1894), p. 279.
264. Russell, "Hemiplegia," p. 408.
265. Charles Fere, "Des troubles de l'usage des signes," Revue philosophique 17 (1884): 593-606, p. 598. For an account of the pathognomonic characteristics of the true aphasic see pp. 596-597.
266. Dejerine, "Differentes varietes," pp. 83-84.
267. Charcot, "Des differentes formes," p. 441.
268. Wernicke, "Aphasia Symptom Complex," p. 107 (pp. 23-24). Translation slightly modified.
269. Wyllie, Disorders of Speech, p. 204.
270. Lichtheim, "On Aphasia," p. 465.
271. William A. Hammond, A Treatise on the Diseases of the Nervous System (New York: D. Appleton, 1886), pp. 184-185.
272. Emile Zola, Therese Raquin, trans. Andrew Rothwell, (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 143.
273. See the remarks in: Gilbert Ballet, Le langage interieur et les formes diverses de l'aphasie (Paris: Felix Alcan, 1886), pp. 82-83, 104.
274. Starr, "Aphasia," p. 332.
275. Trousseau, Clinique medicale, pp. 571-572.
276. See Bateman, On Aphasia, chapter X on the jurisprudence of aphasia.
277. J.-M. Charcot, Lecons sur les maladies du systeme nerveux faites a la Salpêtriere (Paris: A. Delahaye and E. Lecrosnie, 1887), p. 179.
278. On Foucault's concept of discursive density see: Goldstein, "Foucault among the Sociologists," p. 188.
279. Henry Head, "Hughlings Jackson on Aphasia and Kindred Affections of Speech," Brain 38 (1915): 1-27, pp. 1-2.
280. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future, translated R. J. Hollingdale (London: Penguin, 1990), pp. 160-161.
281. On this phenomenon see Anne Harrington, " 'A Feeling for the 'Whole': The Holistic Reaction in Neurology from the Fin de Siecle to the Interwar Years," in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 254-277; idem, Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
282. For biographical information see: Samuel H. Greenblatt, "The Major Influences on the Early Life and Work of John Hughlings Jackson," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 39 (1965): 346-376.
283. Head, "Hughlings Jackson," p. 2.
284. See, for example, H. Tristram Engelhardt, "John Hughlings Jackson and the Mind-Body Relation," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 49 (1975): 137-151, pp. 143-144.
285. John Hughlings Jackson, "Loss of Speech: Its Association with Valvular Disease of the Heart and with Hemiplegia on the Right Side.-Defects of Smell.-Defects of Speech in Chorea.-Arterial Lesions in Epilepsy [1864]," in "Reprint of Some of Dr. Hughlings Jackson's Papers on Affections of Speech," Brain (1915): 28-42, p. 28.
286. John Hughlings Jackson, "On the Anatomical and Physiological Localization of Movements in the Brain [1873]," in "Reprint," 75-79, p. 75.
287. John Hughlings Jackson, "Notes on the Physiology and Pathology of Language," in "Reprint," 48-58, p. 48.
288. Jackson, "Remarks on Evolution and Dissolution of the Nervous System," Journal of Mental Science 33 (1888): 25-48, p. 41.
289. Jackson, "Loss of Speech," p. 37.
290. Jackson, "Notes Language," p. 50. Protestation of modesty was a well-established device for claiming scientific credibility; see: Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), pp. 65-69.
291. See: Dalia Judovitz, Subjectivity and Representation in Descartes: The Origins of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 4.
292. Jackson, "Notes Language," p. 50.
293. Jackson, "Notes on the Physiology and Pathology of the Nervous System [1868]," in "Reprint," 65-71, p. 70.
294. See: James A.Winders, Gender, Theory, and the Canon (Madison: University ofWisconsin Press, 1991), chapter 2.
295. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, translated by Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage Books, 1968), section 475.
296. Cf. Derrida's comments on Husserl's phenomenology, which he regards as caught up in the tradition of metaphysics: "everything that escapes the pure spiritual intention, the pure animation by Geist, that is, the will, is excluded from meaning and thus fromexpression. What is excluded is, for example, facial expressions, gestures, the whole of the body and the mundane register, in a word, the whole of the visible and spatial as such." Speech and Phenomena and Other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973), p. 35.
297. Jackson, "Notes Nervous System," p. 69.
298. Anne Harrington, Medicine, Mind, and the Double Brain: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), p. 206.
299. John Hughlings Jackson, "On the Anatomical and Physiological Localisation of Movements in the Brain [1875]," in James Taylor (ed.), Selected Writings of John Hughlings Jackson, 2 vols. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1931), vol. 1, p. 38.
300. Jackson, "Notes Nervous System," p. 68.
301. Jackson, "Abstract of the Gulstonian Lectures on Certain Points in the Study and Classification of Diseases of the Nervous System [1869]," in "Reprint," 72-74, p. 73.
302. For Jackson's own acknowledgment of this "debt" see his: "Evolution and Dissolution of the Nervous System," Lancet 1 (1884): 555-558, 649-652, 739-744, p. 555.
303. For accounts of Spencer's thought see: J. D. Y. Peel, Herbert Spencer: The Evolution of a Sociologist (New York: Basic Books, 1971); David Wiltshire, The Social and Political Thought of Herbert Spencer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978).
304. Wiltshire, Social and Political Thought, p. 225.
305. Herbert Spencer, The Principles of Psychology, 2 vols. (London: Williams and Norgate, 1870), vol. 1, p. 495.
306. Herbert Spencer, The Study of Sociology, 17 ed. (London: Kegan Paul, 1894), p. 348.
307. Janet Oppenheim, "Shattered Nerves": Doctors, Patients, and Depression in Victorian England (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), especially pp. 43-44, 296-297.
308. Roger Smith, Inhibition: History and Meaning in the Sciences of Mind and Brain (London: Free Association Books, 1992), especially chapter 4.
309. For a general discussion of the role of metaphor in neuroscience see: C. U. M. Smith, "The Use and Abuse of Metaphors in the History of Brain Science," Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 2 (1993): 283-301.
310. Jackson, "Evolution," p. 649.
311. On this point see: Smith, Inhibition, p. 49.
312. Jackson, "Evolution," p. 556.
313. Spencer, Psychology, vol. 1, p. 583.
314. John Hughlings Jackson, "Clinical Remarks on Emotional and Intellectual Language in some Cases of Disease of the Nervous System [1866]," in "Reprint," 43-47, p. 46.
315. Jackson, "Notes Language," p. 48.
316. Jackson, "Loss of Speech," p. 40.
317. John Hughlings Jackson, "On Affections of Speech from Disease of the Brain [1880]," in "Reprint," 130-146, pp. 139-140.
318. John Hughlings Jackson, "On Affections of Speech from Disease of the Brain [1880]," in "Reprint," 147-174, p. 163.
319. Jackson, "Of Affections," p. 151.
320. John Hughlings Jackson, "On Affections of Speech from Disease of the Brain [1879]," in "Reprint," 107-129, p. 118.
321. John Hughlings Jackson, "On the Nature of the Duality of the Brain [1874]," in "Reprint," 87-95, p. 89. For Jackson's notion of propositionizing see: Jackson, "On Affections," pp. 113-114.
322. This image of the aphasic as child was widely disseminated: see chapter 7.
323. Jackson, "On Affections," p. 136.
324. Spencer, Sociology, pp. 373-374.
325. Nietzsche, "Of Truth and Falsity," p. 181.
326. Jackson, "Remarks on Evolution," pp. 29-30.
327. It is possible, though for the purposes of my argument not obligatory, to place this representation of the fragility of the masculine subject in the context of later nineteenthcentury preoccupation with the nature of "manliness" and the threat of encroaching effeminacy. See: Jordanova, Sexual Visions, p. 22. 75 See the avowedly Jacksonian discussion of testamentary capacity in: R. Percy Smith, "Aphasia in Relation to Mental Disease," Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 11 (1917-18): 1-20.
328. Henry Head to Charles Sherrington, 8 October 1925, Sherrington MSS, 00570, Department of Physiology, Oxford.
329. The allusion is to the argument of Bruno Latour, The Pasteurization of France (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988). This borrowing is limited, however, to the suggestion that additional insights may be gleaned by seeking nonhuman agents in the texts under consideration.
330. "Autobiography of Henry Head," Contemporary Medical Archive Centre (CMAC), Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, PP HEA, Box 1, p. 4.
331. These researches were reprinted as:W. H. R. Rivers and Henry Head, "A Human Experiment in Nerve Division," in Henry Head, Studies in Neurology, 2 vols. (London: Hodder and Stoughton), vol. 1, pp. 225-323.
332. Head had, however, taken an interest in aphasia from a much earlier date. He wrote in 1901 of a patient who "in consequence of a blow on the head has entirely lost the visual element in speech but is otherwise quite normal." Letter to Ruth Mayhew, 13[?] January 1901, CMAC, PP HEA D4/8. The suggestion that this patient had lost only a discrete portion of his linguistic capacity while retaining the remainder is, however, scarcely compatible with Head's later holism.
333. Henry Head, "Hughlings Jackson on Aphasia and Kindred Affections of Speech," Brain 38 (1915): 1-190, on p. 1.
334. Henry Head, Aphasia and Kindred Disorders of Speech, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926), vol. 1, p. 146.
335. The poem was sent to Charles Sherrington and is now among the Sherrington papers in the Department of Physiology at Oxford.
336. Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, p. 146.
337. Letter to Ruth Head, 25 March 1917, CMAC PP HEAD D4/19.
338. Von Monakow used "diaschisis" to refer to the diffuse but transitory symptoms that followed some shock to the brain: "Lokalisation der Hirnfunktionen," Journal fur Psychologie und Neurologie 17 (1911): 185-200.
339. Such drawing of sharp dichotomies between the world "before" and "after" the war was a typical trope of the period. See: Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), chapter 3.
340. "Discussion on Aphasia," Brain 43 (1920): 412-450, on p. 445.
341. Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, p. 456.
342. Henry Head, "Aphasia and Kindred Disorders of Speech," Brain 43 (1920): 87-165, on pp. 90-91.
343. Head, Studies, vol. 1, pp. 225-226.
344. Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, p. 148.
345. Simon Schaffer, "Self Evidence," Critical Inquiry 18 (1992): 327-362, pp. 338-339.
346. Henry Head and James Sherren, "The Consequences of Injury to the Peripheral Nerves in Man," Brain 28 (1905): 117-338, on p. 286.
347. Letter of 1 March [1902] to Ruth Mayhew, CMAC, PP HEA D4/11. Head was at Netley to examine patients with peripheral nerve injuries as part of his investigations into sensation.
348. Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, p. 266.
349. Henry Head, "Aphasia: An Historical Review," Brain #43 (1920): 390-450, on p. 403.
350. Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, p. 230.
351. Head, "Aphasia," p. 113.
352. Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, p. 244.
353. Head, Studies, vol. 2, pp. 789-790.
354. Warren R. Dawson, Sir Grafton Elliot Smith: A Biographical Record by His Colleagues (London: Jonathan Cape, 1938), p. 92.
355. Misia Landau, Narratives of Human Evolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), p. 109.
356. G. Elliot Smith, The Evolution of Man: Essays (London: Oxford University Press, 1924), p. 45.
357. Landau, Narratives, pp. 125-127. For a more conventional view of Elliot Smith's place in the history of physical anthropology see: Peter J. Bowler, Theories of Human Evolution: A Century of Debate, 1844-1944 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 167-173.
358. Elliot Smith, Evolution, p. 153.
359. Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, pp. 443-444.
360. "Discussion," p. 413.
361. In his obituary of his former colleague, George Riddoch noted the importance of Head's own "personality" in attracting "intelligent patients into his fold; they could not resist the glamour and excitement of his work on themselves, and became ardent collaborators." London Times, 18 October 1940.
362. Conversely, former patients waxed lyrical about Head's own range and skill as a conversationalist: Robert Nichols, London Times, 15 October 1940.
363. Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, p. 256.
364. Head, Aphasia, vol. 1, p. 446.
365. Letter to Ruth Mayhew, 5 June 1901, CMAC, D4/8. Head continued that in art, on the other hand, "Beauty and Truth become one.".
366. Jacques Derrida, "La Parole Souffleé," in Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 169-195, on p. 170.
367. As Head remarked in a course of lectures in 1912: "cases of disease will be considered simply as the means by which certain laws are demonstrated& certain physiological activities are laid bare." "Page-May Memorial Lectures on the Afferent Nervous System at Institute of Physiology University College London," CMAC, PP HEA B13.
368. Quoted in Fussell, The Great War, p. 197.
369. In a somewhat analogous move Head's former collaborator W. H. R. Rivers had distinguished between the forms of war neurosis appropriate to "officer and man"; in this instance, the greater complexity of the mental life of the former ensured that he reacted to the stresses of combat in a more refined and nuanced way. Instinct and the Unconscious: A Contribution to a Biological Theory of the Psycho-Neuroses, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), p. 209.
370. For a fuller discussion see: Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (London: Virago, 1987), pp. 174-175.
371. On language as an indicator of social boundaries see: Patrick Joyce, Visions of the People: Industrial England and the Question of Class 1848-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 157.
372. For an application of the notion of a language game to the historical understanding of science see: Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Method (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), pp. 14-15.
373. Compare Derrida's formulation: "the writer writes in a language and in a logic whose proper system, laws, and life his discourse by definition cannot dominate absolutely. He uses them only by letting himself, after a fashion and up to a point, be governed by the system." Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gaytari Chakravorty Spivak, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1974), p. 158. While this passage does express the necessary dialectic between constraint and individual creativity, it does, of course, beg the question of after what fashion and to which point the writer "lets" himself be used.
374. Richard Terdiman, Discourse/Counter-Discourse: The Theory of Symbolic Resistance in Nineteenth-Century France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), p. 56.
375. "The seigneurial privilege of giving names even allows us to conceive of the origin of language itself as a manifestation of the power of the rulers: they say 'this is so and so', they set their seal on everything and every occurrence with a sound and thereby take possession of it, as it were." Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morality, ed. Keith Ansell-Pearson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 13.
376. Brown-Séquard rejected the dominant model of cortical "seats" for the language functions. He argued that language loss consequent upon cortical injury should instead be understood as a reflex phenomenon. See: P. J. Koehler, "Brown-Séquard and Cerebral Localization as Illustrated by his Ideas on Aphasia," Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 5 (1996): 26-33.
377. For an early statement of Brown-Séquard's views on aphasia see: "On the Importance of the Application of Physiology to the Practice of Medicine and Surgery," Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science 39ns (1865): 421-436, p. 429.
378. Heymann Steinthal, Einleitung in die Psychologie und Sprachwissenschaft (Berlin: Ferd. Dümmlers, 1881), pp. 463-464.
379. See: Paul Eling, "Steinthal's Psycholinguistic Interpretation of Language Disorders," in H. Grundlach (ed.), Arbeiten zur Psychologie Geschichte (Göttingen: Hogrefe, 1994), pp. 177-88.
380. See: Anne Harrington, "A Feeling for the 'Whole': The Holistic Reaction in Neurology from the Fin de Sie`cle to the Interwar Years," in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Sie`cle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 254-277.
381. For a contemporary review see: James Collier, "Recent Work on Aphasia," Brain 31 (1908): 521-549.
382. Maurice Brissot, L'aphasie dans ses rapports avec la de`mence et les vésanies. (Étude historique, clinique et diagnostique considérations médico-légales) (Paris: G. Steintheil, 1910), p. 7.
383. Henry Head, Aphasia and Kindred Disorders of Speech, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926), vol. 1, p. 67; Collier, "Recent Work," p. 527.
384. The best source for the wider reaction to positivism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century remains: H. Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society: The Reorientation of European Thought 1890-1930 (St Albans: Granada, 1974).
385. See also the essays in: Dorothy Ross (ed.), Modernist Impulses in the Human Sciences 1870-1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1994).
386. For a discussion of this work in the context of Freud's other writings see: John C. Marshall, "Freud's Psychology of Language," in RichardWollheim (ed.), Freud: A Collection of Critical Essays (New York: Doubleday, 1974), 349-365.
387. Freud's work on aphasia has drawn attention chiefly because of its supposed foreshadowing of certain aspects of his later psychoanalytic writing, such as verbal slips; see, for example: John Forrester, Language and the Origins of Psychoanalysis (London: Macmillan, 1980), pp. 14-29.
388. Sigmund Freud, On Aphasia: A Critical Study, trans. E. Stengel (London: Imago, 1953), p. 1.
389. Figures in brackets are references to the corresponding passage in the original: Zur Auffassung des Aphasien: Eine kritische Studie (Leipzig: Franz Deuticke, 1891).
390. Freud's private remarks subvert his public modesty; he wrote to Wilhelm Fliess on 2 May 1891 that in this book: "I am very impudent, cross swords with your friend Wernicke, with Lichtheim and Grashey, and even scratch the high and mighty idol Meynert." Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson (ed.), The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1985), p. 28. I refrain from any Oedipal reading of the passage.
391. L. Lichtheim, "On Aphasia," Brain 7 (1885): 433-484.
392. Freud, On Aphasia, p. 1 [1-2].
393. Ernest Jones, Sigmund Freud: Life and Work, 3 vols. (London: Hogarth Press, 1953), vol. 1, p. 235.
394. Freud, On Aphasia, p. 30 [31].
395. Carl Wernicke, Der aphasische Symptomencomplex: Eine psychologische Studie auf anatomischer Basis (Breslau: Max Cohn and Weigert, 1874), p. 5.
396. For a discussion of the prevalence of various metaphors of brain organization and function in other periods see: John C. Marshall, "Minds, Machines and Metaphors," Social Studies of Science 7 (1977): 475-488.
397. Jean-Jacques Lecercle, The Violence of Language (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 161.
398. Wernicke, Symptomencomplex, p. 1.
399. Freud, On Aphasia, p. 46 [47-48].
400. I have slightly modified the translation. Meynert employs this metaphor in several places; for a representative example see: Theodor Meynert, Psychiatrie. Klinik der Erkrankungen des Vorderhirns begründet auf dessen Bau, Leistungen und Ernährung (Wien: Wilhelm Braumüller, 1884), pp. 127-128.
401. Freud, On Aphasia, p. 48 [50].
402. Jones, Sigmund Freud, vol. 1, p. 235.
403. Freud, On Aphasia, p. 62 [64].
404. Compare the contrasting models present in nineteenth-century French ecological thought described by Paul Rabinow, French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1989), pp. 128-29.
405. On Freud's borrowings from Jackson see: Frank J. Sulloway, Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend (Bungay: Fontana, 1980), pp. 270-272.
406. S. P. Fullinwider, "Sigmund Freud, John Hughlings Jackson, and Speech," Journal of the History of Ideas 44 (1983): 151-158.
407. Pierre Marie, Travaux et mémoires, 2 vols. (Paris: Masson, 1926), vol. 1, p. 94.
408. On Marie's involvement with the Charcot school see: Christopher G. Goetz, Michel Bonduelle, Toby Gelfand, Charcot: Constructing Neurology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), especially pp. 320-21.
409. The right-wing polemicist Gustave Le Bon was, for instance, much preoccupied with the social consequences of the balance of power between the "mob" and the "elite." See: La Psychologie politique et la défense sociale (Paris: Ernest Flammarion, 1910), book III, chapter 1.
410. For a discussion of this literature see: Susanna Barrows, Distorting Mirrors: Visions of the Crowd in Late Nineteenth-Century France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981).
411. Robert A. Nye, The Origins of Crowd Psychology: Gustave Le Bon and the Crisis of Mass Democracy in the Third Republic (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1975).
412. Terdimann, Discourse, p. 64.
413. Marie, Travaux, p. 72.
414. Joseph Grasset, Les centres nerveux: Physiopathologie clinique (Paris: J.-B. Baillie`re, 1905), pp. 305-307.
415. Marie, Travaux, p. 113.
416. For the context of Bergson's work see: R. C. Grogin, The Bergsonian Controversy in France 1900-1914 (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1988).
417. Sanford Schwartz, "Bergson and the Politics of Vitalism," in Frederick Burwick and Paul Douglass, The Crisis in Modernism: Bergson and the Vitalist Controversy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 277-305.
418. Jan Goldstein, "The Advent of Psychological Modernism in France: An Alternative Narrative," in Ross, Modernist Impulses, pp. 190-209.
419. Théodul Ribot, Les maladies de la mémoire (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1898), p. 4.
420. See: Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space 1880-1918 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), pp. 45-46.
421. Henri Lefebvre has placed Bergson's writings in a nineteenth- and twentieth-century tradition of attacks upon the "primacy of the spatial." The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), pp. 21-22.
422. Henri Bergson, Matter and Memory, trans. Nancy Margaret Paul and W. Scott Palmer (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1911 [1896]), p. 4.
423. For the cultural context of this reaction against the "materialism" (in all senses of the word) of nineteenth-century society see: Grogin, Bergsonian Controversy, especially chapter 1.
424. Lefebvre, The Production, p. 25.
425. Morris Eksteins, Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age (London: Bantam Press, 1989), p. 48.
426. To avoid any misunderstanding: it would be perhaps more apt to say that the primed engine set Broca in motion.
427. Hugo Stern, "Die Grundprinzipien der sprachärtztlichen Behandlung Aphasischer," Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift 7 (1914): 247-55, p. 247.
428. Paul Broca, "Sur le sie`ge de la faculté du langage articulé," Bulletins de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris 6 (1865): 377-93, pp. 391-92.
429. See, for example, the ambivalent status of the reading exercises required of a patient suffering from "verbal blindness" in one of Charcot's cases. Désiré Bernard, De l'aphasie et de ses diverses formes, 2nd ed. (Paris: Lecrosnier et Babé, 1889), pp. 76-81.
430. Fritz Mohr, Psychophysische Behandlungsmethoden (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1925), p. ix.
431. W.Eliasberg, "Die Praxis der Aphasiebehandlung," Klinische Wochenschrift 3 (1924): 234-39, p. 238.
432. See also: Fritz Mohr, "Zur Behandlung der Aphasie," Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 39 (1905): 1004-1069, p. 1006.
433. Broca, "Sur le sie`ge," p. 389.
434. H. Charlton Bastian, Aphasia and Other Speech Defects (London: H. K. Lewis, 1898), p. 341.
435. Eliasberg, "Die Praxis," p. 238.
436. William A. White and Smith Ely Jellife, The Modern Treatment of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 2 vols. (London: Henry Kimpton, 1913), vol. 2, p. 488.
437. See: Samuel H. Greenblatt, "Cerebral Localization from Theory to Practice: Paul Broca and Hughlings Jackson to David Ferrier and William Macewen," in Samuel H. Greenblatt, T. Forchi Dagi and Mel H. Epstein (eds.), A History of Neurosurgery in Its Scientific and Professional Contexts (Park Ridge: American Association of Neurosurgeons, 1997), pp. 137-52.
438. J. H. Pringle, "Sir William Macewen," British Medical Journal 1 (1924): 603-5, p. 603.
439. Macewen recounted an anecdote to show that this image had achieved currency in the general population of Glasgow as well as among the medical profession. He reported being accosted at a railway station by a marble cutter who demanded that the "Professor should open his head." It later transpired that the man was suffering from a subdural hemorrhage. William Macewen, "President's Address on Brain Surgery," British Medical Journal 2 (1922): 155-65, p. 161.
440. William Macewen, "The Surgery of the Brain and Spinal Cord," British Medical Journal 2 (1888): 302-9, p. 302.
441. See: Christopher Lawrence and Richard Dixey, "Practising on Principle: Joseph Lister and the Germ Theory of Disease," in Christopher Lawrence (ed.), Medical Theory, Surgical Practice: Studies in the History of Surgery (London: Routledge, 1992), pp. 153-215.
442. In a later address Macewen revealed that his experience of these matters dated back to the early days of his career. "As a student at the Royal Infirmary," he recalled, "I was given the means of studying lesions in the base of the third frontal convolutions producing motor aphasia. Two such cases were in the medical wards during these years, the lesion afterwards being verified by the autopsy." Macewen, "President's Address," p. 157.
443. Macewen, "The Surgery," pp. 302-3.
444. As one leading French colonialist put it: "An officer who has successfully drawn an exact ethnographic map of the territory he commands is close to achieving complete pacification, soon to be followed by the form of organization he judges most appropriate." Quoted in Paul Rabinow, French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1989), p. 147. In this context, Rabinow notes, "ethnography. [meant] little more than the geographical location of groups.".
445. Macewen, "The Surgery," p. 303.
446. L. M. Pussep, "Operative Behandlung der traumatische Aphasien," Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie 17 (1911): 201-14, p. 203.
447. V. Zachary Cope, "Notes of a Case of Traumatic Sensory Aphasia, Treated Successfully by Trephining and Removal of Clot," Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 7 (1914): 128-30, p. 130.
448. See, for instance, Bastian, Treatise, p. 352.
449. For a general account of methods of aphasia therapy since the nineteenth century see: David Howard and Frances M. Hatfield, Aphasia Therapy: Historical and Contemporary Issues (London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987), pp. 16-57.
450. Mohr, "Zur Behandlung," p. 1013.
451. The notion that the speechless man was childlike predates the beginnings of the aphasia literature proper. In 1812 D. J. Larrey wrote of one brain-damaged patient: "he formed a new language for himself, in the same way that children do when they begin to babble." Mémoires de chirurgie militaire, et campagnes, 4 vols. (Paris: J. Smith, 1812-17), vol. 3, p. 322.
452. Charles K. Mills, "Treatment of Aphasia by Training," Journal of the American Medical Association 43 (1904): 1939-49, p. 1944.
453. Kinnier Wilson, "Treatment," p. 697.
454. S. A. Kinnier Wilson, "Treatment of Disorders of Expression (Aphasia, Apraxia, etc.)," in William A. White and Smith Ely Jelliffe (eds.), The Modern Treatment of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 2 vols. (London: Henry Kimpton, 1913), 475-504, pp. 475-76.
455. A. Goldscheider, "Physiklische Therapie der Aphasie," in A. Goldscheider and Paul Jacob, Handbuch der physikalischen Therapie, 4 vols. (Leipzig: Georg Thieme, 1901-2), part 2, vol. 2, 537-552, p. 542.
456. See: Emil Fröschels, "Ueber die Behandlung der Aphasie," Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 53 (1914): 221-61, p. 250.
457. For a discussion of this development see: Andrew Warwick, "Exercising the Student Body: Mathematics and Athleticism in Victorian Cambridge," in Christopher Lawrence and Steven Shapin (eds.), Science Incarnate: Historical Embodiments of Natural Knowledge (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1998), pp. 288-326.
458. H. Gutzmann, "Heilungsversuche bei centromotorischer und centrosensorischer Aphasie," Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 28 (1896): 354-78, p. 358.
459. Mohr, "Zur Behandlung," p. 1028.
460. Gutzmann, "Heilungsversuche," p. 358.
461. The analogy with other forms of "gymnastics" is again informative-especially when the imputed analogy between aphasic and child is recalled. Roberta J. Park has noted the tendency by the early 1900s to insist that children's play must be overseen by some adult expert and governed by a particular "training regime" if it was to attain the desired formative effects: "Biological Thought, Athletics, and the Formation of a 'Man of Character': 1830-1900," in J. A.. Mangan and James Walvin (eds.), Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800-1940 (Oxford: Manchester University Press, 1987), pp. 7-34, esp. pp. 17-18.
462. Gutzmann, "Heilungsversuche," p. 378.
463. For a typical summary of the various techniques employed see: Emil Fröschels, Sprachund Stimmstörungen (Stammeln, Stottern usw.) (Wien: Julius Springer, 1929), pp. 19-22.
464. Gutzmann, "Heilungsversuche," p. 363.
465. Kinnier Wilson, "Treatment," p. 476.
466. On the shell shock phenomenon see: Paul Frederick Lerner, Hysterical Men: War, Neurosis and German Mental Medicine, 1914-1921, Columbia University PhD., 1996.
467. Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830-1980 (London: Virago Press, 1985), chapter 7.
468. Martin Stone, "Shell-Shock and the Psychologists," in W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter and Michael Shepard, The Anatomy of Madness, 2 vols. (London: Tavistock, 1985), pp. 242-271.
469. Allan Young, The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), chapter 2.
470. Fritz Mohr, "Aus der Praxis der Psychotherapie," Medizinisches Klinik 13 (1917): 1116-19.
471. "Die Behandlung der Kriegsneurosen," Therapeutische Monatschrift 30 (1916): 131-41.
472. "Grundsätzliches zur Kriegsneurosenfrage," Med. Klinik 12 (1916): 90-93.
473. Mohr, Psychophysiche Behandlungen, p. ix.
474. Eliasberg, "Die Praxis," p. 238.
475. Mohr, "Zur Behandlung," p. 1015.
476. Mills, "Treatment," p. 1945.
477. Henry Head's case histories (chapter 5) form an exception to this generalization. Although he was not particularly concerned with treatment, Head's texts do show the same concerns with personality and class that figure in the therapeutic literature.
478. Fröschels, "Ueber die Behandlung," pp. 233, 237.
479. "Offizielles Protokoll der k. k. Gesellschaft der Aertze in Wien," Wiener klinische Wochenschrift 27 (1914): 1650.
480. Eliasberg, "Die Praxis," p. 234.
481. Josef Breuer spent several hours a day with the classic hysteric Anna O, whose symptoms included an inability to speak in her native German although she could still communicate in English.
482. Cf. Thomas W. Laqueur, "Bodies, Details, and the Humanitarian Narrative," in Lynn Hunt (ed.), The New Cultural History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 176-204.
483. Mohr, "Zur Behandlung," p. 1015.
484. Stern, "Die Grundprinzipien," p. 247.
485. Fröschels, "Ueber die Behandlung," p. 246.
486. Mohr, "Zur Behandlung," pp. 1045, 1061.
487. On the founding of the Frankfurt Lazarett see: Anne Harrington, Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture fromWilhelm II to Hitler (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 145-46.
488. Goldstein, Die Behandlung, Fürsorge und Begutachtung der Hirnverletzungen: Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Verwendung psychologischer Methoden in der Klinik (Leipzig: F.C.W. Vogel, 1919), pp. 68-69.
489. Compare the problems of coordinating the efforts of numerous subordinates confronted by Ivan Pavlov when he attempted to set up a physiological "factory." Through close personal supervision Pavlov was in this case able to ensure that his collaborators served in effect as extensions to his own senses. Daniel P. Todes, "Pavlov's Physiology Factory," Isis 88 (1997): 205-46.
490. Goldstein, Die Behandlung., p. 5.
491. Steve Sturdy and Roger Cooter have argued that in the Anglo-American context the rise of laboratory medicine occurred in the context of a broader process favorable to the ideals of scientific management. "Science, Scientific Management, and the Transformation of Medicine in Britain c. 1870-1950," History of Science 36 (1998): 421-66. See especially p. 429 for the move towards standardized record keeping and division of labor within the clinic.
492. On this transformation see: Paul Lerner, "Rationalizing the Therapeutic Arsenal: German Neuropsychiatry inWorldWar I," in Manfred Berg and Geoffrey Cocks (eds.), Medicine and Modernity: Public Health and Medical Care in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 123, 129, 133-34.
493. Mohr, "Behandlung der Kriegsneurosen," p. 136.
494. See: Harrington, Reenchanted Science, pp. 146-48 for an account of the paradigmatic case in which these principles were first expounded.
495. Goldstein, Die Behandlung, p. 1.
496. Meyer Papers, Johns Hopkins University Archives, XIV/1/19.
497. Max Müller, "Lectures on Mr Darwin's Philosophy of Language," Fraser's Magazine 7, 8ns (1873): 659-78; 1-24.
498. For a fuller account of Müller's dispute with Darwin see: Elizabeth Knoll, Evolution and the Science of Language: Darwin, Müller, and Romanes on the Development of the Human Mind (University of Chicago PhD Dissertation, 1987).
499. idem, "The Science of Language and the Evolution of Mind," Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences 22 (1986): 3-22.
500. Darwin also alluded to the aphasia literature when trying to demonstrate the physical basis of language. "The intimate connection between the brain, as it is now developed in us, and the faculty of speech," he wrote, "is well shewn by those curious cases of brain-disease, in which speech is specially affected, as when the power to remember substantives is lost, whilst other words can be correctly used." The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex [1871] (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), part 1, p. 58.
501. Müller, "Lectures," p. 677.
502. Frederic Bateman, Darwinism Tested by Language (London: Rivingtons, 1877), pp. 85-86.
503. In the early-modern period, however, the head had still to contend for dominance with the heart; complete craniocentrism was the achievement of the nineteenth century. For an account of Renaissance analogies between body politic and body natural see: E. M. W. Tillyard, The Elizabethan World Picture (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1976), pp. 101-6.
504. In February 1999 it was reported that a Russian neurosurgeon had pioneered an operation designed to cure heroin addicts of their dependency by ablating part of their brain.
505. Neuroscience, Memory, and Language. Volume I of Papers Presented at a Symposium Series. Executive Summary. http://lcweb.loc.gov/loc/brain/summary.html.
506. Presidential Proclamation 6158.
507. Carter, Mapping, pp. 6-7.