Democracy incorporated: Managed democracy and the specter of inverted totalitarianism

Democracy Incorporated: Managed Democracy and the Specter of Inverted Totalitarianism

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 1-356

  Wolin, Sheldon S ^a  

^a NONE

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References (262)

1. Cited in Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933-1939 (New York: Penguin, 2005), 183.
2. Quoted in Ron Suskind, "Without a Doubt," New York Times Magazine, October 17, 2004.
3. New York Times, September 12, 2003, A-19.
4. Michael Mandelbaum, The Ideas That Conquered the World (New York: Public Affairs, 2002), 2.
5. According to the 9/11 commission's report, the White House was originally on the list but was later omitted for reasons that are not clear.
6. New York Times, September 10, 2003, A-11.
7. The phrase "holy politics" was used by an English divine, Richard Baxter, during the seventeenth-century civil wars.
8. Quoted in David Sanger, "U.S. Goal Seems Clear and the Team Complete," New York Times, February 13, 2002, A-14.
9. President George W. Bush, September 14, 2001, in the National Cathedral, cited in NSS, 5.
10. Myth and Society in Ancient Greece, trans. Janet Lloyd (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, [1974], 1980), 196.
11. Blaise Pascal, Pensées, trans. William Finlayson Trotter (London: Dent, 1948), no. 233, p. 67.
12. I have followed the text as printed in the New York Times, January 24, 2007, A-16.
13. Max Weber, "Science as a Vocation," in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, trans. and ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 139, 148, 155.
14. Quoted in John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin, 2005), 46. Kennan was speaking at the Naval War College.
15. The Oxford Universal Dictionary, rev. and ed. C. T. Onions, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955).
16. Quoted in Andrew J. Bacevich, The New American Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced by War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 45.
17. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Michael Oakeshott (Oxford: Blackwell, n.d.), 64, 112, 113.
18. Michael Ignatieff, as quoted in Bacevich, The New American Militarism, 25.
19. Cited in Schlesinger, The Coming of the New Deal, 95, 13, 3.
20. At the time there were writers and journalists who strongly sympathized with Mussolini (e.g., George Bernard Shaw) or the USSR (Walter Duranty, John Reed).
21. See Schlesinger, The Coming of the New Deal, 92.
22. Long's record is discussed in Brinkley, Voices of Protest, 24-35.
23. Quoted by Bacevich, The New American Militarism, 14. As his source Bacevich cites Ronald Radosh, Prophets on the Right: Profiles of Conservative Critics of American Globalism (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975), 128.
24. Quoted by Bacevich, The New American Militarism, 12. Oddly, Reagan was quoting the eighteenth-century radical Tom Paine.
25. The depiction of Japanese soldiers and kamikaze fliers excepted.
26. Shortly after the end of World War I the so-called Palmer Raids (Palmer was the U.S. attorney general) resulted in the violation of virtually every procedural safeguard including deportation of aliens without trial.
27. It is often forgotten that the United States actively intervened in the Bolshevik Revolution, siding with its opponents, the so-called White Russians.
28. This is the viewpoint of Gaddis, The Cold War, especially 222-24, 264.
29. The quotations are from the National Security Council (1950), and the officials cited include Dean Acheson, Robert Lovett, and Paul Nitze. I have taken the quotations from Hogan, A Cross of Iron, 300.
30. NSC-68, VI, pp. 7, 10, 11.
31. See John P. Diggins, Up from Communism: Conservative Odysseys in American Intellectual History (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), 3-4, 441-44.
32. NSC-68, VII-A, p. 9.
33. Quoted in Hogan, A Cross of Iron, 330.
34. Quoted in Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, 8.
35. Richard M. Freeland, The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of Mc-Carthyism: Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, and Internal Security, 1946-1948 (New York: Knopf, 1975), 196, 243, 272, 298.
36. Gaddis, The Cold War, 80.
37. I have relied on the excellent account in Hogan, A Cross of Iron, 119-57. See also Freeland, The Truman Doctrine, 281-85.
38. See the numerous references and discussion in Hogan, A Cross of Iron (see references in his index under "garrison state").
39. The fact that the Nazi regime was proudly racist evoked little self-examination by Americans of their own support and toleration of racism. Throughout the war segregation was enforced in the American armed forces.
40. On the government's recruitment of intellectuals, see Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: The New Press, 2000).
41. Cited in Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, 44.
42. See Hogan's account in A Cross of Iron (426-44) of the "Freedom Train" and the role of corporate sponsors; and also of the tragicomic episode in Mosinee, Wisconsin, where the town produced a mock communist takeover of the town.
43. Quoted in Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War, 34. The study group was chaired by General James Doolittle, who had led the first bombing raid on Tokyo during World War II.
44. Gaddis, The Cold War, 192.
45. NSC-68, Conclusions, p. 4.
46. Gaddis, The Cold War, 79.
47. "2nd Presidential Debate. .. ," New York Times, October 12, 2000, A-20.
48. "The Bush Doctrine," Weekly Standard, June 4, 2001. Cited in Bacevich, The New American Militarism, 83.
49. Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (New York: Penguin, 2004), 72 describes how after World War I, German politics and culture were saturated with talk of violence.
50. The remark is attributed to Grover Norquist, founder of Americans for Tax Reform.
51. On the military and the Nazis, see Michael Mann, Fascists (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 63, 65, 68-69, 104.
52. On evangelical capitalism, see Malcolm Gladwell, "The Cellular Church," New Yorker, September 12, 2005, 60-67.
53. In connection with the rationalization of the universities, note the persistent efforts of think tank critics and right-wing operatives (e.g., David Horowitz) to demand an end to tenure for professors and to "liberal domination" of faculties.
54. See Bacevich, The New American Militarism, chap. 3.
55. Robert Dahl, "Business and Politics: A Critical Appraisal of Political Science," in Robert Dahl et al., Social Science Research on Business: Product and Potential (Columbia University Press: New York, 1959), 53.
56. Josh Meyer, "Unprecedented Domestic Surveillance since 9/11," reprinted from the Los Angeles Times in the Santa Rosa Press Democrat, September 9, 2006, A-1.
57. Robert O. Paxton, as quoted by Alexander Stille, "The Latest Obscenity Has Seven Letters: F-a-s-c-i-s-m," New York Times, September 13, 2003, A-19. See also Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism (New York: Knopf, 2004), 42ff., 78ff.
58. Both Mussolini and Hitler employed violence during the run-up to the elections. See Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, 266 ff., 285; Mann, Fascists, 98-99, 104, 116; Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, chaps. 4, 5.
59. During the Katrina disaster the federal government suspended minimum wage requirements for some businesses under contract for the cleanup operations.
60. In keeping with the spirit of inverted totalitarianism the program was later shown, but on a more obscure TV channel.
61. See the Oxford English Dictionary, under "patient." 23. One definition of "popularize" in the OEDis "to render democratic." 24. NSS, sec. 1, p. 3.
62. Michael Ignatieff, "Barbarians at the Gate?" New York Review of Books, February 28, 2002, 4.
63. See Jeffrey Toobin, Too Close to Call: The Thirty-Six-Day Battle to Decide the 2000 Election (New York: Randon House, 2001).
64. Cited in Karl Dietrich Bracher, The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure, and Effects of National Socialism, trans. Jean Steinberg (New York: Praeger, 1970), 318n29.
65. Cited in Lewis L. Gould, Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans (New York: Random House, 2003), 350.
66. New York Times. April 4, 2003, B-2.
67. Recall that the celebration was relatively short-lived when glitches were discovered that prevented computer systems from registering the change in millennial dating. Financial reporting, security systems, and the military were temporarily disrupted.
68. The antiballistic missile program (ABM or Star Wars) championed by the Reagan administration was an admission of American vulnerability.
69. NSS, Introduction, p. 2.
70. "Campaign 2000: Promoting the National Interest," Foreign Affairs, January/February, 2000, 53.
71. Cited by Roger Cohen, "A Global War: Many Fronts, Little Unity," New York Times, September 5, 2004, sec. 4, p. 1.
72. NSS, Introduction, p. 1.
73. Speech of January 22, 2004, in New York Times, January 23, 2004, A-19, A-23.
74. At the second anniversary of 9/11 the ceremonies of remembrance featured children who read the names of the victims and supplied the music.
75. Ignatieff, "Barbarians at the Gate?" 4.
76. New York Times, September 11, 2003, A-1.
77. NSS, Introduction, p. 1.
78. Leviathan, chap. 31, p. 237.
79. William and Lawrence Kaplan, The War over Iraq (2003), 121, as cited in Bacevich, The New American Militarism, 92.
80. See "On the Office of the Sovereign Representative," Leviathan, chap. 30, p. 219 ff.
81. Hobbes on violent death: Leviathan, chap. 13, pp. 81-83.
82. In converting the citizen into a subject, Hobbes was reacting against the more democratic conceptions of the citizen circulating during the English civil wars of the 1640s.
83. Leviathan, chap. 28, p. 209; chap. 17, p. 112.
84. New York Times, January 23, 2004, A-19, 23.
85. For a further discussion see my Tocqueville between Two Worlds:. The Making of a Political and Theoretical Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
86. Democracy in America, trans. Harvey C. Mansfield and Delba Winthrop (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 663.
87. Leviathan, 64.
88. New York Times, April 15, 2003, B-3.
89. New York Times, March 7, 2003.
90. Not long after it had been issued, the administration withdrew it without offering an explanation or disavowal.
91. NSS, sec. 3, p. 5.
92. The Philosophy of Right, trans. T. M. Knox (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1945), p. 210, par. 325.
93. NSS, sec. 9, p. 24.
94. Later some foreign businesses from France and Germany were selected to compete for contracts. Clearly this was intended as bait to weaken the opposition of those governments to the invasion.
95. See, in particular, Jeremy Scahill, Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army (New York: Nation Books, 2007).
96. NSS, sec. 9, pp. 22-24. Compare Chalmers Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic (New York: Henry Holt, 2004), 159-60.
97. NSS, sec. 8, p. 18.
98. In the light of the Bush administration's record, the NSS's promise to "protect the environment and workers" hardly needs comment.
99. NSS, sec. 9, pp. 23, 24.
100. NSS, Introduction, p. 1.
101. James Fenimore Cooper, The Deerslayer (New York: New American Library, 1963), 78.
102. See the fine study by Michael J. Graetz and Ian Shapiro, Death by a Thousand Cuts: The Fight over Taxing Inherited Wealth (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).
103. Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 160.
104. Edward S. Corwin's "The Constitution and What It Means Today", rev. Harold W. Chase and Craig R. Ducat (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 106.
105. The Greek and Roman political theorists, such as Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, and Cicero, were aware of the existence of contemporary empires, yet they ignored them in their classification of types of political regimes.
106. New York Times, April 19, 2003, A-3.
107. For an engrossing account see Toobin, Too Close to Call.
108. Ironically, while the Republicans constantly attack the Democrats for their close association with Hollywood celebrities, it is the Republican presidents who emulate the action-heroes of the movies.
109. New York Times, June 9, 1991.
110. On the Nazi assault on democracy and constitutionalism see Bracher, The German Dictatorship, chaps. 3-5; Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, chaps. 4-5; Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, chaps. 4-5.
111. See Corwin, Total War and the Constitution.
112. Secret tribunals outside the legal structure were an important fixture of Nazi rule. See Bracher, The German Dictatorship, 210, 213, 263, 351, 352, 359, 364, 418.
113. See "GM Thrives in China with Small Thrifty Van," New York Times, August 9, 2005, A-1.
114. Samuel Huntington, "Dead Souls: The Denationalization of the American Elite," The National Interest, November, 2002, 16.
115. Cited in Charles Marsh, "Wayward Christian Soldiers," New York Times, January 20, 2006, A-19.
116. The quotation is the title of a book by Falwell. Cited by Marsh, "Wayward Christian Soldiers," A-19.
117. The line is from the Bhagavad Gita, which Oppenheimer had read in the original Sanskrit.
118. Cited by Nicholas D. Kristof, "The God Gulf," New York Times, January 7, 2004, A-25.
119. Still suggestive is Harold Rosenberg's The Tradition of the New, 2nd ed. (Boston: Da Capo, 2001).
120. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed. W. B. Todd (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 1:454, 456.
121. Cited in Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom (New York: Norton, 2003), 210-11.
122. The classic statement of this view is Max Weber's "Science as a Vocation," in From Max Weber, 129-56.
123. See Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), chap. 2
124. J. Bronowski, Science and Human Values (New York: Harper, 1956), especially 65 ff.
125. See Sheldon Krimsky, Science in the Private Interest (San Francisco: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003).
126. In the nineteenth century there were several proposals for substituting science for religion as the basis of society, the most notable being that of Auguste Comte.
127. Hobbes, Leviathan, 237.
128. For the contribution to democracy of evangelicals and Pentecostals generally, see Hatch, The Democratization of American Christianity, 206-9.
129. "I.R.S. Offers Amnesty to Companies That Admit Tax Indiscretions," New York Times, December 26, 2001, C-1.
130. See the thoughtful and engaging study by Victoria de Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America's Advance through 20th-Century Europe (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005).
131. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations (New York: Knopf, 1973), 135, 146-48.
132. Walter Lippmann, Essays in the Public Philosophy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1955), 15, 20, 26-27.
133. "Spy Agencies Told to Bolster 'The Growth of Democracy,'" New York Times, October 27, 2005, A-10.
134. See Kurt Eichenwald, "Even If Heads Roll, Mistrust Will Live On," New York Times, October 6, 2002, sec. 3, p. 1, for an account of a series of crimes committed by business executives.
135. See "Military Brass and Military Contractors' Gold Mine," New York Times, June 29, 2004, C-1.
136. See P. W. Singer, Corporate Warriors (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003).
137. Job training was the motivating concern in President Bush's support for increasing government contributions to two-year community colleges.
138. Cited in Elizabeth Bumiller, "Bush Rejects Idea of Boycotting Meeting in Russia," New York Times, March 30, 2006, A-10.
139. Cited by Floyd Norris, "Business Ethics and Other Oxymorons," New York Times, April 20 2003, sec. 7, p. 16.
140. The Democratic majority elected to Congress in 2006 passed a law requiring that the sponsors of earmarks be identified.
141. The Federalist, ed. Jacob E. Cooke (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1961), No. 58, p. 396.
142. Noah Feldman, cited by Dilip Hiro, "One Iraqi, One Vote," New York Times, January 27, 2004, op-ed page.
143. Edward N. Luttwak, "Rewarding Terror in Spain," New York Times, March 16, 2004, op-ed page.
144. Trump was replaced by Martha Stewart, fresh from serving a jail term for perjury.
145. The landmarks are the Civil Service Reform Act of 1887 and the Hatch Act of 1934.
146. See Paul Krugman, "Victors and Spoils," New York Times, November 19, 2002, A-31.
147. For details, see the study by Jacob S. Hacker and Paul Pierson, Off Center: The Republican Revolution and the Erosion of American Democracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005).
148. The Federalist, No. 55, p. 374.
149. See Leo Strauss, Thoughts on Machiavelli (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1958), and Harvey C. Mansfield, Jr., Taming the Prince: The Ambivalence of Modern Executive Power (New York: Free Press, 1989).
150. The Discourses of Niccolò Machiavelli, trans. Leslie J. Walker, 2 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), vol. 2, II.2.10 (pp. 359-60).
151. See Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (New York: Doubleday, 1963), 102-3, 227ff.
152. Leo Strauss, On Tyranny (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), 76-77.
153. Bloom's The Closing of the American Mind, an important text among Straussians, simply ignores the power of capitalists.
154. "Kissinger Reflects on Vietnam War and Foreign Policy," Princeton Weekly Bulletin, March 1, 2004, 3.
155. Burton Pines, director of research at the Heritage Foundation. Cited by Greg Easterbrook, "Ideas Move Nations," Atlantic Monthly, January 1986.
156. Lawrence Kaplan and William Kristol (The War over Iraq: Saddam's Tyranny and America's Mission), cited by Halper and Clarke, America Alone, 219.
157. Cited in George C. Herring, "America and Vietnam: The Unending War," Foreign Affairs, Winter 1991/92.
158. The Third Wave, cited (but no page given) in Zakaria, The Future of Freedom, 18.
159. The Third Wave, cited in Zakaria, The Future of Freedom, 18-19.
160. Leo Strauss, What Is Political Philosophy? and Other Studies (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959), 10.
161. See G. S. Kirk and J. E. Raven, eds., The Presocratic Philosophers (London: Cambridge University Press, 1957), 220ff.
162. Shadia Drury, The Political Ideas of Leo Strauss (New York: St. Martin's, 1988), 7. This is a very useful analysis and account of its subject.
163. Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind, 324.
164. On Nietzsche see my Politics and Vision, chap. 13.
165. Cited in Drury, The Political Ideas of Leo Strauss, 11.
166. "Executive power. .. has a natural basis in monarchy." Taming the Prince, 295. One of Mansfield's earlier books was a highly suggestive study of Viscount Bolingbroke, who was the author of The Idea of a Patriot King (1738).
167. Taming the Prince, 297. See my review, "Executive Liberation," and Mansfield's spirited rejoinder, "Executive Power and the Passion for Virtue," in Studies in American Political Development 6 (Spring 1992): 211-16.
168. Taming the Prince, 271.
169. The book comes with the highest recommendations not only from Huntington but also from Henry Kissinger and Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. See the book jacket.
170. Zakaria, The Future of Freedom, 220-21.
171. See Gardiner Harris and Janet Roberts, "After Sanctions, Doctors Get Drug Company Pay," New York Times, June 3, 2007, 1.
172. Zakaria, The Future of Freedom, 17.
173. Bernard Groethuysen, Origines de l'esprit bourgeois en France (Paris: Gallimard, 1927).
174. Quoted in Sarah Rimer, "Committee Urges Harvard to Expand the Reach of the Undergraduate Curriculum, New York Times, April 27, 2004, A-17.
175. Huntington, "Dead Souls," 8.
176. Huntington, "Dead Souls," 8.
177. For his doubts, see his essay in the Trilateral Commission Report, The Crisis of Democracy, 63-64, 74 ff., 102 ff.
178. The Federalist, No. 55, p. 374.
179. According to BBC radio (October 29, 2004) the figure was arrived at by a study conducted by the prestigious British medical journal Lancet. The chief investigator estimated that the figure might be as high as 200,000.
180. Cited by Philip Gourevitch, "Bushspeak," New Yorker, September 13, 2004, 41-42.
181. "On the Road, Bush Fields Softballs from the Faithful," New York Times, August 16, 2004, A-11.
182. Anthony Pagden, "Empire, Liberalism and the Quest for Perpetual Peace," in Daedalus, Spring 2005, 46-57, at 52.
183. "Cheney Sees 'Shameless' Revision on War," New York Times, November 22, 2005, A-1.
184. Cited in Mann, Incoherent Empire, 11.
185. See Johnston, Perfectly Legal.
186. In attempting to erase felons from the voter rolls, the state of Florida managed to erase legal voters as well.
187. Santa Rosa Press Democrat, March 7, 2004, A-3.
188. Quoted in David M. Halbfinger, "Shedding Populist Tone, Kerry Starts Move to Middle," New York Times, May 8, 2004, A-14.
189. A majority of Americans are said to favor having a religious president.
190. Cited in Halbfinger, "Shedding Populist Tone, Kerry Starts Move to Middle," A-14.
191. The Missouri Compromise also stipulated that Kansas and Nebraska would be organized as free territories.
192. During the traditional New Year's Eve celebration in New York City to usher in 2005, police armed with machine guns patrolled the crowds.
193. On the role of paramilitary forces in preparing the way to power in Italy, see Mann, Fascists, 68-69.
194. See Carl Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture (New York: Knopf, 1980), 116ff.
195. Burkean conservatism resurfaced in the late 1950s and early 1960s in writers such as Russell Kirk and William Buckley. They are now somewhat scornfully labeled "paleoconservatives" by some neocons.
196. The infatuation of American academics with Bentham and J. S. Mill was mostly a twentieth-century phenomenon.
197. Schlesinger, The Coming of the New Deal, chaps. 2-5.
198. A major exception was the directive of President Truman ending segregation in the armed forces.
199. See Eric Nordlinger, On the Democratic State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), for a defense of the neoliberal state.
200. On the opposition between reason and passion, see The Federalist, No. 49, p. 343; No. 50, p. 346; No. 58, p. 396.
201. Quoted in Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1991), 246. I am much indebted to Wood's discussion of interests.
202. Note also the recent spate of celebratory biographies of Washington, Hamilton, and Adams; at the same time Jefferson's standing as a leader and democratic spokesman has fallen sharply.
203. See the important work by Nash, The Unknown American Revolution.
204. Madison, The Federalist, No. 58, p. 397; John Jay, No. 4, p. 22.
205. See the stimulating account in Charles Wiebe, Self-Rule: A Cultural History of American Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), especially pts. 1 and 2; and my Tocqueville, chaps. 12 and 19.
206. James Madison, The Federalist, No. 10, p. 64.
207. Cited by James Mann, Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush's War Cabinet (New York: Viking, 2004), 203.
208. The Federalist, No. 10, p. 64.
209. Cited in Gould, Grand Old Party, 379.
210. See the lively study by Frank, What's the Matter with Kansas? It is rarely pointed out that the racial categories of pollsters serve to reinforce racism and its stereotypes.
211. Cited in Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 773.
212. There is a judicious assessment of Turner in Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (New York: Knopf, 1969), 47ff.
213. The Federalist, No. 51, p. 351.
214. Cited in Ferguson, Colossus, 80.
215. Charlie Savage, "Bush Asserts Power to Ignore Laws," Santa Rosa Press Democrat, May 1, 2006, A-1.
216. Justice Alito, who served under Attorney General Meese during the Reagan administration, helped devise a strategy for circumventing congressional intentions.
217. Quoted by Emmanuel Todd, Après l'empire: essai sur la décomposition du système américain (Paris: Gallimard, 2002), 22.
218. To P. S. Dupont de Nemours, April 24, 1816, in Writings (New York: Library of America, 1984), 1385.
219. "Popular Sovereignty as Procedure," in Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and Politics, ed. James Bohman and William Rehig (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997), 43. Italics in original.
220. See the proposals for congressional action in "Budget to Hurt Poor People. .. ," New York Times, January 30, 2006, A-14.
221. Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, ed. and trans. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (New York: International Publishers, 1971), 273.
222. My discussion of Athenian democracy is much indebted to R. K. Sinclair, Democracy and Participation in Athens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
223. On this topic, see Moses I. Finley, Democracy Ancient and Modern (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1973)
224. G.E.M. de Ste. Croix, The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981).
225. Aristotle, Politics 1291b30-38, 1310a28-36, 1317a40-b7.
226. Solon and Cleisthenes were described by some ancient writers as precursors of democracy.
227. Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, I.70, p. 40.
228. See J. K. Davies, Democracy and Classical Greece (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983), 139, for examples of these rivalries.
229. Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, V.89, p. 331.
230. See Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, III.36-48; IV.28-29, 108; VI.8-19, 89.
231. See Farrand, The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, 1:26, 48, 49, 51, 58, 123, 132, 146. There were some rare exceptions, e.g., the speeches of James Wilson in Farrand.
232. Aylmer, The Levellers, 121.
233. See Arno J. Mayer, The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).
234. See Gary Nash, "Artisans and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," in Jacob and Jacob, The Origins of Anglo-American Radicalism, 258-78.
235. To Dupont de Nemours, April 24, 1816, in Writings, 1387.
236. Cited in Maureen Dowd, "The Unslammed Phone," New York Times, September 9, 2006, A-27.
237. See Frank Rich, The Greatest Story Ever Sold: The Decline and Fall of Truth from 9/11 to Katrina (New York: Penguin, 2006).
238. Cited in Michael Abramowitz and Thomas E. Ricks, "Strategy: Pressures Mount on Bush Policy," Santa Rosa Press Democrat, October 20, 2006, A-1, 15. Reprinted from the Washington Post.
239. Bernard Williams, Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), 118. This book is the best available discussion of the subject.
240. Republic, 105 ff. (III.414 ff.) 11. José Sarramago has written a remarkable novel on the theme, The Cave, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage, 2003).
241. Republic, 227 ff.(VII.514a ff.).
242. The administration of Lyndon Johnson was the last instance of a Democratic administration that struggled to combine the welfare state with a crushing defense budget.
243. See Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest; Isaacson and Thomas, Wise Men.
244. See Cannon, President Reagan, 521 ff.
245. For details, see the excellent biography by Cannon, President Reagan, 66-67
246. Gary Wills, Reagan's America (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1985).
247. For Reagan and concentration camps, see Cannon, President Reagan, 428 ff.
248. It was the Reagan administration's James Watt whose record as secretary of the interior was the equivalent of the classic horror movie for environmentalists.
249. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Crisis of the Old Order, 1919-1933 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957).
250. Quoted in Adam Nagourney, "Democrats Back Lamont in Show of Unity," New York Times, August 10, 2006, A-1.
251. James Glanz, "Series of Woes Mark Iraq Project Hailed as Model," New York Times, July 28, 2006, A-1.
252. In Vice President Cheney's notorious closed meeting with the most powerful energy corporations, a major environmental group, the National Resources Defense Council, was denied admission.
253. An interesting addition to the idea of originalism among conservatives is the elevation of certain conservative books as canonical and their authors as founding fathers of conservative theory.
254. Aristotle, Politics, VII.ix, 1329a.
255. On higher education and campus protest, see Sheldon S. Wolin and John H. Schaar, The Berkeley Rebellion and Beyond (New York: New York Review of Books, 1970).
256. The Federalist, 57.
257. The Federalist, No. 10, 63, 64-65.
258. The Federalist, No. 51, p. 349.
259. The Federalist, No. 72, p. 489.
260. A classic account is that by R. H. Tawney, The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Harper, 1967). The work was originally published in 1912.
261. See my essay "Tending and Intending a Constitution: Bicentennial Misgivings" in The Presence of the Past, 82-99.
262. The secretary of homeland security testified recently that the agency's inept response to Katrina was due in large part to its preoccupation with security.