Culture, 1922: The emergence of a concept

Culture, 1922: The Emergence of a Concept

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-231

  Manganaro, Marc ^a  

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References (232)

1. Stephen Greenblatt, "Culture," in Critical Terms for Literary Study, ed. Frank Lentricchia and Thomas McLaughlin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 225.
2. See chapter 1, below, which opens with a treatment of Eliot's and Geertz's attempts to give culture "definition." 3. Bruce Robbins, Secular Vocations: Intellectuals, Professionalism, Culture (London: Verso, 1993), 173.
3. Gerald Graff, "Arnold, Reason, and Common Culture," in Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, ed. Samuel Lipman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 192.
4. Christopher Herbert, Culture and Anomie: Ethnographic Imagination in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 54.
5. See Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, 66-86.
6. Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 92.
7. Edward Tylor, The Origins of Culture, vol. 1 of Primitive Culture (1871; reprint, New York: Harper & Row, 1958), 1.
8. Matthew Arnold, "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time," in Essays in Criticism (New York: A. L. Burt Co., 1865), 14.
9. See Eliot's aptly titled essay "The Function of Criticism" (1923) in T. S. Eliot, Selected Essays, new ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, & Co., 1950), 12-22.
10. Robbins, Secular Vocations, 173.
11. See also James Clifford, "On Ethnographic Allegory," in Clifford and Marcus, Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, ed. James Clifford and George E. Marcus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 112.
12. George Stocking, After Tylor: British Social Anthropology, 1888-1951 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995), 229.
13. T. S. Eliot, "Ulysses, Order, and Myth," in Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, ed. Frank Kermode (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 178.
14. Kenneth Burke, "Literature as Equipment for Living," in The Philosophy of Literary Form: Studies in Symbolic Action (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1941), 296.
15. Robert Lowie, Primitive Society (New York: Liveright, 1947 [1920]), 440.
16. John Crowe Ransom, "Criticism, Inc.," in The World's Body (New York: Charles Scribner'ss Sons, 1938), 328-29.
17. This sentence is a borrowing from Eliot's own "Tradition and the Individual Talent," in Selected Essays, new ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, & Co., 1950), 6.
18. Clifford Geertz, "Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture," in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 5.
19. T. S. Eliot, Notes towards the Definition of Culture, in Christianity and Culture, 85.
20. A. L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions (New York: Vintage, 1952), 33.
21. Raymond Williams, Culture and Society: 1780-1950 (1958; reprint, New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 233.
22. On the inherently interpretable nature of the culture concept, see Christopher Herbert, Culture and Anomie: Ethnographic Imagination in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 4-7.
23. Franz Boas, "The Principles of Ethnological Classification," in The Shaping of American Anthropology: A Franz Boas Reader, ed. George Stocking (New York: Basic Books, 1974), 62.
24. Jonathan Morse, personal communication, 1986.
25. See T. S. Eliot, After Strange Gods: A Primer of Modern Heresy (London: Faber & Faber, 1934), 20.
26. George Stocking, The Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 285.
27. See Edward Sapir, Selected Writings of Edward Sapir in Language, Culture, and Personality, ed. David G. Mandelbaum (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1949), 604-7.
28. T. S. Eliot, "The Waste Land," Dial 73 (1922): 481-85;
29. Edward Sapir, "A Symposium of the Exotic,", 568-71;
30. T. S. Eliot, "The Second-Order Mind," 69 (1920): 586;
31. Edward Sapir, "Primitive Humanity and Anthropology," review of Primitive Society by Robert Lowie, 528-33.
32. Edward Sapir, "Civilization and Culture," 67 (1919), 233-36. A transitional version was published in 1922, the same year as the publication of The Waste Land, in the Dalhousie Review.
33. T. S. Eliot, Collected Poems, 1909-1962 (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1970), 53, lines 22-24. Further references to the poetry will be made by line number within the text.
34. T. S. Eliot, "The Metaphysical Poets," in Selected Essays, 247.
35. T. S. Eliot, "Hamlet and His Problems," in Selected Essays, 124-25.
36. Renato Rosaldo, Culture and Truth: The Remaking of Social Analysis (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 12.
37. T. S. Eliot, introduction to The Wheel of Fire, by G. Wilson Knight (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1930), xvii.
38. Richard Handler, "'The Dainty and the Hungry Man': Literature and Anthropology in the Work of Edward Sapir," in Observers Observed: Essays on Ethnographic Fieldwork, ed. George Stocking (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), 214.
39. Edward Sapir, "Culture, Genuine and Spurious" (1924), in Sapir, Selected Writings of Edward Sapir, 331; all citations are to this version.
40. Cleanth Brooks, "The Waste Land: Critique of the Myth," in Modern Poetry and the Tradition (1939; reprint, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967), 136-72;
41. Vickery, Literary Impact of the Golden Bough, 243-67.
42. Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson, "Beyond 'Culture': Space, Identity, and the Politics of Difference," Cultural Anthropology 7 (February 1992): 9.
43. For Roman Jakobson's classic formulation of metonymy (as distinguished from metaphor), see his "Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic Disturbances," in Fundamentals of Language (The Hague: Mouton, 1956), 105.
44. Michael Taussig, Mimesis and Alterity: A Particular History of the Senses (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), xvi.
45. Frazer's influential formulation of the "Principles of Magic" as they are divided between "homeopathic" and "contagious" varieties can be found in The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1963), 12-14.
46. The quotation is the concluding line of "The Dry Salvages," the third of the four quartets (see Collected Poems, 199).
47. Frank Lentricchia, "My Kinsman, T. S. Eliot," Raritan: A Quarterly Review 11 (spring 1992): 19.
48. Louis Untermeyer, in T. S. Eliot: The Critical Heritage, ed. Michael Grant (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), 1:151-52; hereafter cited in the text of this chapter as Critical Heritage.
49. T. S. Eliot, Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, ed. Frank Kermode (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 177.
50. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 228.
51. F. O. Matthiessen, The Achievement of T. S. Eliot: An Essay on the Nature of Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935), vii.
52. A. Walton Litz, "The Waste Land Fifty Years After," in Eliot in His Time, ed. Litz (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973), 7-8.
53. Louis Menand, "T. S. Eliot After His Time," Raritan: A Quarterly Review 8 (spring 1988): 93.
54. Robert Lowie, Primitive Society (1920; reprint, with a new preface, New York: Liveright, 1947), 440.
55. Sapir, "Primitive Humanity and Anthropology," 530.
56. Eliot, "Second-Order Mind," 588.
57. T. S. Eliot, quoted from Richard Ellmann, "The FirstWaste Land," in Litz, Eliot in His Time, 52.
58. T. S. Eliot, On Poetry and Poets (New York: Farrar, Straus & Cudahy, 1957), 121.
59. Litz, "The Waste Land Fifty Years After," 5.
60. See T. S. Eliot, "Poetry and Drama," in Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, 132-47. The essay was originally delivered as a lecture at Harvard University in 1951.
61. Eliot, Notes, 136. Sapir's "Culture, Genuine and Spurious" functions as an interesting, if often contrastive, analogue to Eliot's contemplation upon the internationalist possibilities of cultural configuration in Notes (see Sapir, Selected Writings of Edward Sapir, 328-30).
62. For the most comprehensive version of Jameson's rendition of postmodernism, see Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991).
63. See, e.g., Perry Meisel, The Myth of the Modern (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 127-42.
64. James Longenbach, "Matthew Arnold and the Modern Apocalypse," PMLA 104 (October 1989): 844-55.
65. See James Clifford, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997).
66. Clifford, Predicament of Culture, 1-7.
67. It is significant in terms of sexual politics that within a few years of each other, Sapir, Eliot, and Williams all embody the hybridic, postlapsarian American product as working-class woman (telephone girl, typist, and the washerwoman Elsie, respectively).
68. On the continuities between Frazerian and Malinowskian anthropology, see George Stocking, "The Ethnographer's Magic," in The Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 12-59.
69. On the new economy of Malinowski's participant observation, see James Clifford, "On Ethnographic Authority," in The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 21-54;
70. Stocking, "Ethnographer's Magic." 3.
71. James Frazer, preface to Argonauts of theWestern Pacific, by Bronislaw Malinowski (1922; reprint, Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1984), 9.
72. See Marc Manganaro, Myth, Rhetoric, and the Voice of Authority (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 18-67, as well as Marilyn Strathern's "Out of Context: The Persuasive Fictions of Anthropology," in Modernist Anthropology, ed. Marc Manganaro (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 80-122.
73. Bronislaw Malinowski to B. Seligman, 21 June 1918, cited in Man and Culture: An Evaluation of the Work of Bronislaw Malinowski, ed. Raymond Firth (London: Routledge& Kegan Paul, 1957), 6, and discussed in Stocking, "Ethnographer's Magic," 51, and Clifford, Predicament of Culture, 96.
74. See Manganaro, Myth, Rhetoric, and the Voice of Authority, 68-71.
75. I. C. Jarvie, The Revolution in Anthropology (1964; reprint, Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1967), 43.
76. Malinowski to James Frazer, 25 October 1917, quoted in Robert Thornton, "Imagine yourself suddenly set down. . . ," Anthropology Today 1 (1985): 8.
77. James Clifford, "On Ethnographic Allegory," in Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, ed. James Clifford and George E. Marcus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 112.
78. On the importance of charts and tables to Malinowski's method, see Kenneth Dauber, "Bureaucratizing the Ethnographer's Magic," Current Anthropology 36 (February 1995): 75-95.
79. Eliot asserts in "The Function of Criticism" that "any book, any essay, any note in Notes and Queries, which produces a fact of even the lowest order about a work of art is a better piece of work than nine-tenths of the most pretentious critical journalism" (T. S. Eliot, Selected Essays, new ed. [New York: Harcourt, Brace, & Co., 1950], 21).
80. On the relation of the emergence of the culture concept to the notion of "untrammeled desire," unrestrained will, or "anomie," see Christopher Herbert, Culture and Anomie: Ethnographic Imagination in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 29-73.
81. Bronislaw Malinowski, "Ethnology and the Study of Society," as quoted in Stocking, After Tylor, 267. The essay appeared originally in Economica 2 (1922): 208-19.
82. Stocking, After Tylor, 361. Stocking here discusses how Malinowski's changing conception of culture and function increasingly sets Malinowskian functionalism at odds with Radcliffe-Brown's structural functionalism.
83. Stocking, After Tylor, 364. The phrase "general laws of cultural process," quoted from Malinowski's correspondence of 1938, comments on the commonalities between his and Radcliffe-Brown's positions.
84. The language and general positions are taken from Jarvie's Revolution in Anthropology, 189-90. Jarvie, it should be noted, clarifies the differences between the two camps as a way of debunking their authoritative status, which even in 1962 had an at least residual hold.
85. See Herbert's discussion of the heuristic aspect of Malinowski's culture concept in Culture and Anomie, 307 n. 3.
86. On the argument that Malinowski ultimately recanted culture as an empirical entity, see ibid., 13, 19, 115-16, 150, 307.
87. T. S. Eliot, Notes towards the Definition of Culture, in Christianity and Culture (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977), 87.
88. Raymond Firth, second introduction to Malinowski, Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term, xxii-xxiii.
89. George Marcus and Michael Fischer, Anthropology as Cultural Critique: An Experimental Moment in the Human Sciences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 34.
90. Clifford Geertz,Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), 75.
91. Firth, second introduction to Malinowski, Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term, xxx. Firth also objects to what he sees as Clifford's loose application of the term fiction to both ethnography and the novel (xxx-xxxi).
92. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, quoted Geertz, Works and Lives, 80, originally appearing in Evans-Pritchard's A History of Anthropological Thought (New York, 1981), 199; Clifford, Predicament of Culture, 46.
93. See, in this regard, Stocking's characterization of the diary as "a Joycean . . . stream of consciousness without an index" (After Tylor, 263). The filiations of Malinowski and Argonauts to the work of Joyce is treated in chapters 4 and 5.
94. F. O. Matthiessen, The Achievement of T. S. Eliot: An Essay on the Nature of Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935), 45.
95. Clifford, "On Ethnographic Authority," 31.
96. For a more general discussion of the development of wholes in modern ethnography, see Thornton, "Rhetoric of Ethnographic Holism." 37.
97. See Jarvie, Revolution in Anthropology, 40, 183, 188.
98. See esp. Clifford, "On Ethnographic Authority"; and idem, "Traveling Cultures," in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg et al. (New York: Routledge, 1992).
99. Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922; reprint, Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1984), 509.
100. Mary Louise Pratt, "Fieldwork in Common Places," in Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, ed. James Clifford and George E. Marcus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 27.
101. See Robert Thornton, "On Ethnographic Holism," in Rereading Cultural Anthropology, ed. George Marcus (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1992), 15-17.
102. See J. R. Firth's "Ethnographic Analysis and Language with Reference to Malinowski's Views," in Man and Culture: An Evaluation of the Work of Bronislaw Malinowski, ed. Raymond Firth (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1957), 94, 118.
103. Gerald Prince, "Narratology," in The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism, ed. Michael Groden and Martin Kreiswirth (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 524, 527.
104. On Greimas's reformulation of Propp's "functions" into Greimas's "actants," see ibid., 525.
105. See Clifford, "On Ethnographic Authority," 29, 39-40, 45-46.
106. See Stocking, After Tylor, 287, on the distinctions between myth and magic.
107. Bronislaw Malinowski, "Myth in Primitive Psychology," in "Magic, Science, and Religion" and Other Essays by Bronislaw Malinowski (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1948), 21.
108. See the introduction to The Early Writings of Bronislaw Malinowski, ed. Robert Thornton and Peter Skalnick (n.p., n.d.), 16-26.
109. It should be noted that Malinowski frequently argues against the common white notion of "savage crudity": once one witnesses "savage art" in "its proper, 'living' setting," one is able to perceive the "artistic perfection" that abounds (151).
110. John Paul Russo says that The Meaning of Meaning is recognized as "the bestknown book ever written on semantics" ("I. A. Richards," in Groden and Kreiswirth, Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism, 620).
111. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism (1923; reprint, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1945), 2, 14.
112. Ogden and Richards, in The Meaning of Meaning, concede that "definitions" exist "which include more than ideas," and they cite Edward Sapir's 1922 volume Language, which considers an "emotive element" (7).
113. In fact, Ogden and Richards, as proof of what they call "the persistence of the primitive linguistic outlook" (ibid., 29), quote Frazer on the "survival" of superstitions in the modern world.
114. One recent exception is Michael North's Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). North also aligns Malinowski with Ogden and Richards and focuses as well upon the publication, also in 1922, of Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (31-32).
115. A. L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions (New York: Vintage, 1952), 187.
116. See James Joyce: The Critical Heritage, ed. Robert H. Deming, 2 vols. (London: Routledge, 1970), 1:220, hereafter cited in this chapter as Critical Heritage, giving volume and page.
117. Stuart Gilbert, James Joyce's "Ulysses": A Study, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955), 3.
118. James Joyce, "Dubliners" and "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man": A Casebook, ed. Morris Beja (London: Macmillan, 1973), 38, hereafter cited as Casebook.
119. David Hayman, "Ulysses": The Mechanics of Meaning (1970; reprint, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 3.
120. Ray McDermott, "Conklin, Joyce, and the Wannaknow," American Anthropologist 99 (June 1997): 257-60.
121. William York Tindall, A Reader's Guide to James Joyce (1959; reprint, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1978), 127.
122. Frank Budgen, quoted from Clive Hart, "Frank Budgen and the Story of The Making of 'Ulysses,' " in Re-Viewing the Classics of Joyce Criticism, ed. Janet E. Dunleavy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 122-23.
123. See James Buzard, " 'Culture' and the Critics of Dubliners," James Joyce Quarterly 37 (fall 1999-winter 2000): 43-61, especially on Joyce as auto-ethnographer and Stanislaus, in relation to Joyce critics, as the unprofessional indigenous informant, lacking expertise.
124. Frank Budgen, "Joyce's Chapters of Going Forth by Day," in Critical Essays on James Joyce's Ulysses, ed. Bernard Benstock (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1989), 67-68.
125. On Joyce's creation of an already defunct Dublin, see William Mottolese, prospectus for "Writing Dear Dirty Dublin," 9-11;
126. see also Enda Duffy, The Subaltern "Ulysses" (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 2.
127. T. S. Eliot, Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, ed. Frank Kermode (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 178.
128. Pound's 1922 review of Ulysses does note that "the scaffold taken from Homer" functions as "a means of regulating the form" (Critical Heritage, 1:264).
129. So zealous was Aldington that he could not wait a year for the publication of Ulysses entire before launching his offensive against the novel.
130. Anthony Cronin, "The Adventures of Bloom," in Benstock, Critical Essays, 58, 65.
131. See Buzard, " 'Culture' and the Critics of Dubliners," 43. The Hodgart quotation cited by Buzard is from Matthew Hodgart, James Joyce: A Student's Guide (London: Routledge, 1978), 44.
132. Margot Norris, Rereading the New: A Backward Glance at Modernism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 353.
133. Cheryl Herr, Joyce's Anatomy of Culture (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 12-15.
134. Cheryl Herr, "Art and Life, Nature and Culture, Ulysses," in Joyce's Ulysses: The Larger Perspective, ed. Robert D. Newman and Weldon Thornton (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1987), 20, 25.
135. Virginia Dominguez, "Invoking Culture: The Messy Side of 'Cultural Politics,' " South Atlantic Quarterly 91 (winter 1992): 19-42.
136. On Joyce's reading in anthropology, see Vickery, Literary Impact of The Golden Bough, 326-30. On Joyce's treatment of Lévy-Bruhl in Finnegans Wake, see David Spurr, "Myths of Anthropology: Eliot, Joyce, Lévy-Bruhl," PMLA 109 ( March 1994): 275-77.
137. Raymond Williams, Culture and Society: 1780-1950 (1958; reprint, New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), xvi.
138. See James Joyce, "Ireland, Island of Saints and Sages," in The Critical Writings of James Joyce, ed. Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellmann (New York: Viking Press, 1959), 154-74. The editors briefly discuss the Italian sociopolitical context of Joyce's piece.
139. See James Joyce, "The Study of Languages," in Mason and Ellmann, Critical Writings of James Joyce, 26.
140. Joyce, quoted in Mason and Ellmann, Critical Writings of James Joyce, 172. The editors here refer to Joyce's use of the term Hellenize in the opening chapter of Ulysses; this passage will be treated in full and in its Arnoldian implications below.
141. For a treatment of the use of culture words in Dubliners entire, see my essay "The 'Culture' of Dubliners" (1998), in circulation.
142. James Joyce, Dubliners, intro. Edna O'Brien (1914; reprint, New York: Signet-Penguin, 1991), 187.
143. Burgess, in an essay entitled "A Paralyzed City," sees Gabriel as "a sort of James Joyce-a literary man, college teacher, contributor of a literary column to the Dublin Daily Express, Europeanised, out of sympathy with Ireland's nationalistic aspirations, aware that his own culture is of a different, superior, order to that which surrounds him in provincial Dublin" (Casebook, 234-35).
144. Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, ed. Samuel Lipman (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 9.
145. Wolfhard Steppe, with Hans Walter Gabler, A Handlist to James Joyce's "Ulysses": A Complete Alphabetical Index to the Critical Reading Text (New York: Garland Press, 1986), 63.
146. Quotations from Ulysses are cited by episode and line number from the authoritative Ulysses: The Corrected Text, ed. Hans Walter Gabler with Wolfhard Steppe and Claus Melchior (New York: Vintage Books, 1986).
147. Don Gifford, with Robert J. Seidman, "Ulysses" Annotated: Notes for James Joyce's Ulysses, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 338.
148. T. S. Eliot, "Tarr," Egoist 5 (September 1918): 106.
149. T. S. Eliot, The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1933), 141.
150. Matthew Arnold, "The Incompatibles," in Irish Essays, and Others (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1882), 68.
151. Gerald Graff, "Arnold, Reason, and Common Culture," in Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, 186.
152. Gifford and Seidman also complete the abbreviated description with "variety" ("Ulysses" Annotated, 271).
153. See Gilbert's James Joyce's "Ulysses," especially his treatment of Cyclops. On Bloom-Odysseus as "Everyman or Noman," see 268.
154. Marilyn French, The Book as World: James Joyce's "Ulysses" (New York: Paragon House, 1993), 209.
155. James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916; reprint, New York: Viking Press, 1975), 208.
156. Ian Crump, "Refining Himself Out of Existence: The Evolution of Joyce's Aesthetic Theory and the Drafts of A Portrait," in Joyce in Context, ed. Vincent Cheng and Timothy Martin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 227.
157. Maurice Beebe, "Joyce and Aquinas: The Theory of Aesthetics," in James Joyce, "Dubliners" and "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man": A Casebook, ed. Morris Beja (London: Macmillan, 1973), 165, 168, hereafter cited as Casebook.
158. Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922; reprint, Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1984), 517.
159. Stuart Gilbert, James Joyce's "Ulysses" (New York: Vintage Books, 1955 [1931]), 9.
160. Levin, preface to Dubliners, 354.
161. Brewster Ghiselin, "The Unity of Dubliners," in Casebook, 100-101.
162. David Hayman, "Ulysses": The Mechanics of Meaning (1970; reprint, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 15.
163. Stuart Gilbert, "The Rhythm of Ulysses," in Critical Essays on James Joyce, ed. Bernard Benstock (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1989), 57.
164. Joyce's schema, as reproduced in appendix 2 of Hayman's Ulysses: The Mechanics of Meaning (148-49), assigns an "organ" to all but the first three of the book's eighteen episodes. These run the range of the human body and include "esophagus," "brain," "blood," "ear," "locomotor apparatus," "nerves," "skeleton," and "flesh." 13. Patrick McCarthy, "Stuart Gilbert's Guide to the Perplexed," in Re-Viewing Classics of Joyce Criticism, ed. Janet E. Dunleavy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 27-29.
165. Walton Litz, "Ulysses and Its Audience," in James Joyce: The Centennial Symposium, ed. M. Beja et al. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 221.
166. Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 47-51.
167. Cheryl Herr, "Art and Life, Nature and Culture, Ulysses," in Joyce's Ulysses: The Larger Perspective, ed. Robert D. Newman and Weldon Thornton (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1987), 19-23.
168. Weldon Thornton, "Voices and Values in Ulysses," in 245-70.
169. James Joyce to Frank Budgen, March 1920 (while Joyce was composing "Oxen of the Sun"), quoted 253.
170. Joyce concludes his description of his analogizing strategies with the cheeky rhetorical question, "How's that for high?" 21. Marilyn French, The Book as World: James Joyce's "Ulysses" (New York: Paragon House, 1993), 168.
171. See the authoritative Ulysses:_The Corrected Text, ed. Hans Walter Gabler with Wolfhard Steppe and Claus Melchior (New York: Vintage Books, 1986), 14.345, 14.524, and 14.1169 (episode and line numbers).
172. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism (1923; reprint, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1945), 14.
173. For more on the Burke-Malinowski relation, see chapter 7, below.
174. Clifford Geertz,Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), 76.
175. William York Tindall, A Reader's Guide to James Joyce (1959; reprint, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1978), 127;
176. Anthony Cronin, "The Adventures of Bloom," in Benstock, Critical Essays, 58.
177. Stanley Sultan, "The Adventures of Ulysses in Our World," in Newman and Thornton, Joyce's "Ulysses," 272-74.
178. Denis Donogue, "Is There a Case against Ulysses?" in Cheng and Martin, Joyce in Context, 19-20.
179. In this light, Mahaffey's comment, though intended toward different ends, rings true: Joyce's "whole" and "hole" end up being "phonetically and philosophically, identical," or put another way, part of the selfsame project.
180. Karen Lawrence, "The Narrative Norm," in Benstock, Critical Essays, 293.
181. Robert Scholes, "Ulysses: A Structuralist Perspective," in 248.
182. James Buzard, " 'Culture' and the Critics of Dubliners," James Joyce Quarterly 37 (fall 1999-winter 2000): 43-61.
183. Robert Lowie, Primitive Society (1920; reprint, with a new preface, New York: Liveright, 1947), 441.
184. Margaret Mead, An Anthropologist at Work: Writings of Ruth Benedict (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959), 9.
185. Handler refers to Patterns of Culture as "fundamentally comparative and hermeneutic" ("Ruth Benedict," 175).
186. Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (1934; reprint, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959), 46.
187. Ruth Benedict, "The Concept of the Guardian Spirit in North America," Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 29 (1923): 84-85, quoted in Mead, Anthropologist at Work, 204.
188. See also Patterns, 53, where Benedict, discussing Spengler's treatment of culture as organism, comments on "the analogy, which can never be more than an analogy, with the birth-and death-cycle of living organisms." 7. Clifford Geertz, Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), 111-13.
189. See Bronislaw Malinowski, Early Writings of Bronislaw Malinowski, ed. Robert Thornton and Peter Skalnick (n.p., n.d.), 21.
190. Her first version of this argument, in "Psychological Types in the Cultures of the Southwest" (reprinted in Mead, Anthropologist at Work, 248-61), focused sharply on the Zuni as the Apollonian exception in native North American culture, and of course did not include a "paranoid" third leg as exemplified by the Dobu in Patterns.
191. See John Vickery, "Frazer and the Elegiac," in Modernist Anthropology, 51-68, which makes the case that Frazer's pervasively elegiac tone had a heavy impact upon modernist literature.
192. See Allen Tate's important essay "Literature as Knowledge" in his Collected Essays (Denver: Swallow Press, 1959), 44. Here Tate debates Richards on interpretations of Coleridge's organicism.
193. See I. A. Richards, The Principles of Literary Criticism (1924; reprint, London: Routledge, 1983), 63-89.
194. John Crowe Ransom, The World's Body (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1938), 349.
195. Cleanth Brooks, The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1947), 199.
196. I. A. Richards, Science and Poetry (New York: Norton & Co., 1926), 20.
197. W. K. Wimsatt and M. C. Beardsley, "The Intentional Fallacy," in The Verbal Icon (Lexington: University Of Kentucky Press, 1954), 1-18. This important volume functions as a late summation of New Critical method.
198. Cleanth Brooks, Modern Poetry and the Tradition (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967 [1939]), 42-43.
199. Allen Tate, "Three Types of Poetry," in On the Limits of Poetry: Selected Essays: 1928-1948 (New York: Swallow Press, 1948), 113.
200. Clifford Geertz, Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), 110.
201. Margaret Mead, An Anthropologist at Work: Writings of Ruth Benedict (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959), 204.
202. Deborah Gordon, "The Politics of Ethnographic Authority: Race and Writing in the Ethnography of Margaret Mead and Zora Neale Hurston," in Modernist Anthropology, ed. Marc Manganaro (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 162.
203. Toni Morrison, The Song of Solomon (New York: Signet, 1978), 339.
204. Zora Neale Hurston, Mules and Men (1935; reprint, New York: Harper & Row, 1990), 179.
205. Houston Baker, "Workings of the Spirit: Conjure and the Space of BlackWomen's Creativity," in Zora Neale Hurston: Critical Perspectives Past and Present, ed. Henry Louis Gates and K. A. Appiah (New York: Amistad Press, 1993), 303.
206. Cheryl Wall, "Mules and Men and Women: Zora Neale Hurston's Strategies of Narration and Visions of Female Empowerment," in Critical Essays on Zora Neale Hurston, ed. Gloria L. Cronin (New York: G. K. Hall, 1998), 56.
207. However, Alan Lomax, the prominent early-twentieth-century American folklorist, called Mules and Men "the most engaging, genuine, and skillfully written book in the field of folklore" (see Cheryl Wall, "Zora Neale Hurston: Changing Her Own Words," in Gates and Appiah, Zora Neale Hurston, 79).
208. See, e.g., Elmer Davis's 1938 review, in which he calls Tell My Horse "a curious mixture of remembrances, travelogue, sensationalism, and anthropology" and labels the "travelogue" "tedious" (reprinted in Gates and Appiah, Zora Neale Hurston, 25).
209. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 224.
210. In his afterword to Mules and Men Henry Louis Gates more or less agrees with Dolby-Stahl that the book is essentially literary: he asserts that Hurston is "more of a novelist than a social scientist" (293).
211. Barbara Johnson, "Thresholds of Difference: Structures of Address in Zora Neale Hurston," in Gates and Appiah, Zora Neale Hurston, 136.
212. Wall points to the persona Zora's shift into "neutral" as indicating "the need to assume the objectivity fieldwork requires" ("Mules and Men and Women," 55).
213. On Hurston's contriving of her "between-story" contexts, see, e.g., Robert Hemenway, "That Which the Soul Lives By," in Zora Neale Hurston, ed. Harold Bloom (New York: Chelsea Press, 1986), 92.
214. Yeats's poem was published in 1927, the year in which Hurston began her Florida fieldwork.
215. Richard Wright, review of Zora Neale Hurston, Their Eyes Were Watching God, reprinted in Gates and Appiah, Zora Neale Hurston, 17. Wright's review originally appeared in New Masses, 5 October 1937, 16-17.
216. George Hutchinson, in The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1995), performs just such a careful reading of Boas's own political positionings, which, Hutchinson stresses, saw some important qualitative shifts in the early decades of the century (62-77).
217. Cleanth Brooks, Modern Poetry and the Tradition (1939; reprint, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967), 212-13.
218. See Zora Neale Hurston, "Characteristics of Negro Expression," in The Sanctified Church, foreword by Toni Cade Bambara (New York: Marlowe & Co., 1981), 49-68. On the essay's composition and publication history, see Bambara's foreword, 11.
219. Cleanth Brooks, The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1947), 188-89.
220. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism (1923; reprint, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1945).
221. Kenneth Burke, The Philosophy of Literary Form: Studies in Symbolic Action (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1941), 103.
222. Kenneth Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 269-70.
223. On Burke's importance to anthropology, see Herbert Simons and Trevor Melia, eds., The Legacy of Kenneth Burke (Madison: University Of Wisconsin Press, 1989), esp. the discussion by and about Geertz, 6-7. In his essay "Blurred Genres," American Scholar 49 (1980): 165-79, Geertz speaks of Burke's future influence upon the human sciences rather than his contemporary lineages.
224. I. A. Richards, Science and Poetry (New York: Norton & Co., 1926), 25, quoted by Allen Tate in "Literature as Knowledge," in On the Limits of Poetry (Denver: Swallow Press, 1948), 41.
225. I. A. Richards, The Principles of Literary Criticism (1924; reprint, London: Routledge, 1983), 211.
226. For example, Burke states that "it is difficult to keep the magical decree and the religious petition distinct" (Philosophy, 5); Burke adopts Frazer's categories but puts pressure upon them.
227. Wall, "Mules and Men and Women," 64. See Hurston's "Hoodoo in America," Journal of American Folklore 44 (1931): 317-417.
228. Wall notes that in the "Hoodoo" section of Hurston's book this word-wielding is characteristically a female African American phenomenon; in the book, Wall claims, "female empowerment" is centered in hoodoo practice, whereas there is a "paucity" of tales told by women in the book's first section ("Mules and Men and Women," 63, 56).
229. Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of theWestern Pacific (1922, reprint, Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1984), 328.
230. This is not entirely unlike Arnold's 1867 claim, cited in the introduction to this volume, that despite the bad connotations of the word culture, we cannot do without it (Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, ed. Samuel Lipman [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994], 3).
231. Virginia Dominguez, "Invoking Culture: The Messy Side of 'Cultural Politics,' " South Atlantic Quarterly 91 (winter 1992): 29.
232. Susan Hegeman, Patterns for America: Modernism and the Concept of Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 201.