Property rights and participation in REDD+: The case of mozambique

Transnational Environmental Law

Volumn 1, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 381-401

  Ludwig, Grit ^a  

^a HELMHOLTZ CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH UFZ   (Germany)

Author keywords

Keywords REDD+; Land Tenure; Local Communities; Mozambique; Participation

Indexed keywords

EID: 84889862007     PISSN: 20471025     EISSN: 20471033     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S2047102512000064     Document Type: Article

References (160)

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25. Other questions are, e.g., how to distribute the funds between forest nations: cf. J. Phelps et al., 'What Makes a "REDD" Country?' (2010) 20(2) Global Environmental Change, pp. 322-32, at 332
26. C. Okereke &K. Dooley, 'Principles of Justice in Proposals and Policy Approaches to AvoidedDeforestation: Towards a Post-Kyoto Climate Agreement' (2009) 20(1) Global Environmental Change, pp. 82-95, at 84. Another point is that incentives need to be high enough to compete with other land use options
27. M.U. Persson & C. Azar, 'Preserving the World's Tropical Forests: A Price on Carbon May Not Do' (2010) 44(1) Environmental Science and Technology, pp. 210-5, at 214.
28. Kanninen et al., n. 10 above, at pp. 17-9.
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30. Phelps et al., n. 14 above, at p. 324
31. M. Skutsch & L. Ba, 'Crediting Carbon in Dry Forests: The Potential for Community Forest Management in West Africa' (2010) 12(4) Forest Policy and Economics, pp. 264-70, at 269
32. A. Chhatre & A. Agrawal, 'Trade-offs and Synergies between Carbon Storage and Livelihood Benefits from Forest Commons' (2009) 106(42) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, pp.17667-70, at 17669
33. D. Murdiyarso & M.M. Skutsch (eds.), Community Forest Management as a Carbon Mitigation Option: Case Studies (Center for International Forestry Research, 2006), at pp. 4-6.
34. Douglas & Simula, n. 7 above, at p. 182.
35. Indigenous peoples and local communities may be unable to participate in conservation payment programmes because of a lack of property rights (to forests or forest carbon), lack of information, lack of legal protection, high implementation and transaction costs, or because historical contributions to conservation render them ineligible.
36. Okereke & Dooley, n. 14 above, at p. 93.
37. L. Alden Wily, 'Custom and Commonage in Africa: Rethinking the Orthodoxies' (2008) 25(1) Land Use Policy, pp. 43-52, at 47.
38. J. Phelps, E.L. Webb & A. Agrawal, 'Does REDD1 Threaten to Recentralize Forest Governance?' (2010) 328(5976) Science, pp. 312-3
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40. For opportunities and challenges in detail, see K. Lawlor & D. Huberman, 'Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) and Human Rights', in J. Campese, T. Sunderland, T. Greiber & G. Oviedo (eds.), Rights-Based Approaches: Exploring Issues and Opportunities for Conservation (CIFOR & IUCN, 2009), pp. 269-86, at 271-2.
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42. Global Forest Coalition (GFC), REDD Realities (GFC, 2009), at p. 53, with reference to Mozambican National Forest Inventory: Inventário Florestal Nacional, National Directorate of Lands and Forests (DNTF), Maputo, 2008. Miombo forests have a lower wood carbon storage per hectare than humid forests, but because they cover such extensive areas, their overall contribution is considered to be quite high
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44. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics.
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48. V. Ribeiro, 'An Overview of the Problems Faced by Mozambique's Forests, Forest-Dependent Peoples and Forest Workers', at p. 4, available at: http://www.wrm.org.uy/countries/Mozambique.html
49. C. Mackenzie, Forest Governance in Zambézia, Mozambique: Chinese Takeaway! (Fongza, 2006), at pp. 73-4, available at: http://www.illegal-logging. info/uploads/Mozambique-China.pdf.
50. S. Wertz-Kanounnikoff, A. Sitoe & A. Salomão, How is REDD1 Unfolding in Southern Africa's Dry Forests? A Snapshot from Mozambique (CIFOR, 2011), at p. 2, with reference to A. Marzoli, Inventário Florestal Nacional, Avaliação Integrada das Florestas de Moçambique (DNTF, Ministry of Agriculture, Maputo, 2007).
51. C. Parker, A. Mitchell, N. Mardas & K. Sosis, The Little REDD1 Book (Global Canopy Foundation, 2009), p. 28.
52. A list of REDD Country Participants is available at: http://www. forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/Node/19.
53. Wertz-Kanounnikoff, Sitoe & Salomão, n. 28 above, at p. 4.
54. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto (Japan), 11 Dec. 1997, in force 16 Feb. 2005, available at: http://unfccc.int/kyoto-protocol/items/2830.php.
55. Art. 12 of the Kyoto Protocol does not include safeguards concerning rights of indigenous peoples and local communities. This has resulted in adverse effects on the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities of someCDMprojects, e.g., through controversial large-scale plantations: see Phelps et al., n. 14 above, at p. 323.
56. Meridian Institute, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): An Options Assessment Report (Meridian Institute, 2009), at pp. 25-7.
57. There are 166 parties to the ICCPR (n. 42 below), 160 to the ICESCR (n. 43 below), 194 to the UNFCCC (n. 12 above), and 190 to the Kyoto Protocol (n. 32 above).
58. L. Rajamani, 'The Increasing Currency and Relevance of Rights-Based Perspectives in the International Negotiations on Climate Change' (2010) 22(3) Journal of Environmental Law, pp. 391-429, at 412.
59. Annex G, para. 2 lit. (c)-(d) of the Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action under the Convention on its Eighth Session, Copenhagen (Denmark), 7-15 Dec. 2009, UN Doc. FCCC/AWGLCA/2009/17, 5 Feb. 2010, available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/awglca8/eng/17.pdf Appendix I, para. 2 lit. (c)-(d)
60. Decision 1/CP.16, n. 13 above.
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63. For a more comprehensive overview on the relevant international law, see R. Lyster, 'REDD1, Transparency, Participation and Resource Rights: The Role of Law' (2011) 14(2) Environmental Science & Policy, pp. 118-26, at 119-20.
64. New York, NY (US), 16 Dec. 1966, in force 23 Mar 1976, available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm.
65. New York, NY (US), 16 Dec. 1966, in force 3 Jan. 1976, available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cescr.htm.
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69. The 1st Protocol was adopted 20 Mar. 1952, in force 18 May 1954. Both are available at: http://conventions.coe.int
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79. L. Cotula & J. Mayers, Tenure in REDD: Start-oint or Afterthought? (IIED, 2009)
80. Global Forest Coalition, n. 23 above, at p. 85.
81. Cf. for the discussion, M.N. Shaw (ed.), International Law (Cambridge University Press, 6th edn, 2008), 279
82. I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (Oxford University Press, 1998), at p. 574
83. T.R.G. Banning, The Human Right to Property (Intersentia, 2001), at p. 58.
84. Cf. Inter-American Court of Human Rights cases involving Art. 21 of the ACHR: The Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua, Judgment of 31 Aug. 2001
85. Case of the Indigenous Community Yakye Axa v. Paraguay, Judgment of 17 June 2005
86. Saramaka People v. Suriname, Judgment of 28 Nov. 2007, all available at: http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/decisions/archive.asp. In the Mayagna case the court found that the state must obtain consent from indigenous communities for activities on lands they have historically occupied and that the state must enact procedures to grant these communities legal title to their lands in order to uphold the right to property. In the Saramaka case the same court found that Art. 21 indicates the right of the Saramaka people to property. It was further found that this right requires the state to grant themlegal title to their customary lands.However, the statemay still restrict the 'use of property in circumstances that are defined by law and that are proportionate to the achievement of a legitimate objective'.
87. There are a few states that have already recognized carbon sequestration rights as separate from the property in trees or the forest. For the example of Australia cf. Lyster, n. 41 above, at p. 123.
88. See also D. Takacs, Forest Carbon: Law and Property Rights (Conservation International, 2009), at pp. 21-3.
89. Constituição daRepública deMoçambique 2004, English version available at: http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/ Constitution-%28in-force-21-01-05%29%28English%29-Mozlegal.pdf.
90. Government of Mozambique 1997, Lei de Terra 19/97. English translation available at: http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/moz15369E.pdf.
91. The titleholder of the right of land use and benefit may mortgage the immovable assets and improvements which he or she has duly been authorized to make on the land, or over which he or she has legally acquired a right of ownership: Art. 16(5) Land Law.
92. Lei de Florestas e Fauna Bravia 1999, Law No. 10/99, available at: http://www.legisambiente.gov.mz/index.php?option5com-docman&task5doc- details&gid537&Itemid539.
93. Available at: http://www.legisambiente.gov.mz/index.php?option5com- docman&task5cat-view&gid514&Itemid539.
94. Rights and Resources Initiative (RRI) &International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), Tropical Forest Tenure Assessment: Trends, Challenges and Opportunities (RRI & ITTO, 2009), at p. 16. The study accounts for 84% of African tropical forests.
95. Salomão & Matose, n. 25 above, at p. 13.
96. A. Pagden, 'Human Rights, Natural Rights, and Europe's Imperial Legacy' (2003) 31(2) Political Theory, pp. 171-99.
97. D. Damler, Wildes Recht: Zur Pathogenese des Effektivitätsprinzips in der neuzeitlichen Eigentumslehre (Wild Law: About the Pathogenesis of the Principle of Effectiveness in the Doctrine of Property Rights of the Modern Age) (Dunker & Humblot, 2010), at p. 12.
98. Alden Wily, n. 20 above, at p. 44.
99. Global Forest Coalition, n. 23 above, at p. 56
100. S. Vermeulen & L. Cotula, 'Over the Heads of Local People: Consultation, Consent, and Recompense in Large-Scale Land Deals for Biofuels Projects in Africa' (2010) 37(4) Journal of Peasant Studies, pp. 899-916, at 909
101. Nhantumbo & Salomão, n. 25 above, at pp. 31-2.
102. L. Alden Wily, 'Land Rights Reform and Governance in Africa: How to Make it Work in the 21st Century', UNDP Discussion Paper, Feb. 2006, at p. 31, available at: http://knowledgebase.terrafrica.org/fileadmin/user-upload/ terrafrica/docs/Land-Rights-Reform-and-Gov-in-Africa.pdf.
103. C. Serra & C. Tanner, 'Legal Empowerment to Secure and Use Land and Resource Rights in Mozambique', in L. Cotula & P. Mathieu (eds.), Legal Empowerment in Practice: Using Legal Tools to Secure Land Rights in Africa (IIED & FAO, 2008), pp. 61-70, at 61.
104. Alden Wily, n. 71 above, at p. 32.
105. L. Barrera-Hernández, 'Got Title, Will Sell: Indigenous Rights to Land in Chile and Argentina', in A. McHarg et al. (eds.), Property and the Law in Energy and Natural Resources (Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 185-209, at 208.
106. The Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), Readiness Plan Idea Note (R-IN) submitted by Mozambique on 15 Dec. 2008, at p. 6, available at: http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/sites/forestcarbonpartnership.org/ files/Documents/PDF/Mozambique-R-IN-Revised-Feb-2009.pdf.
107. S. Norfolk & C. Tanner, Improving Tenure Security for the Rural Poor: Mozambique Country Case Study (FAO, Support to the Legal Empowerment of the Poor, 2007), at p. vii.
108. See also Alden Wily, n. 71 above, at p. 28: 'Mozambique does not practice what it preaches, giving investor interests in customary lands more support than customary interests.'
109. FCPF, n. 75 above.
110. Serra & Tanner, n. 72 above, at p. 63.
111. Global Forest Coalition, n. 23 above, at p. 56
112. Serra&Tanner, n. 72 above, at p. 61
113. Norfolk&Tanner, n. 76 above, at p. 31.
114. Norfolk & Tanner, ibid., at p. 31.
115. C. Tanner et al., Making Rights a Reality: Participation in Practice and Lessons Learned in Mozambique (FAO, LSP Working Paper 27, 2006), at p. 24.
116. J.D. Unruh, 'Carbon Sequestration in Africa: The Land Tenure Problem' (2008) 18(4) Global Environmental Change, pp. 700-7, at 702.
117. Aarhus (Denmark), 25 June 1998, in force 30 Oct. 2001, available at: http://www.unece.org/env/pp/welcome.html.
118. With regard to participation in REDD1, cf. in detail E. Morgera, 'Participation, Balancing of Rights and Interests, and Prior Informed Consent', in J. Costenbader (ed.), Legal Frameworks for REDD Design and Implementation at the National Level (IUCN, 2009), pp. 35-56, at 49-53.
119. 'Community participation' must not end up at the community leader: cf. H.M. Kyed, State Recognition of Traditional Authority: Authority, Citizenship and State Formation in Rural Post-War in Kenya (PhD Dissertation, Roskilde University, 2007), at p. 363, available at: http://www.diis.dk/graphics/-Staff/ hmk/HeleneKyed-Dissertation-State%20recognition%20of%20traditional%20Authority. pdf.
120. Regarding access to information on REDD1, see also Morgera, n. 85 above, at p. 49.
121. Own observations; Tanner et al., n. 81 above, at p. 54.
122. M. Hobley, Where in the World is There Pro-oor Forest Policy and Tenure Reform? (Rights and Resources, 2007), at p. 27, available at: http://www.rightsandresources.org/documents/files/doc-658.pdf.
123. Tanner et al., n. 81 above, at p. 67.
124. Global Forest Coalition, n. 23 above, at p. 78
125. F. Seymour, 'Forests, Climate Change and Human Rights: Managing Risks and Trade-Offs', in S. Humphreys (ed.), Human Rights and Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 207-37, at 216.
126. Numbers vary between 20 and over 40: R.M.M. Cumbane, Mozambique: Language Situation (Elsevier, 2006)
127. M.P. Lewis (ed.), Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Ethnologue, 2009), 16th edn, online version, available at: http://www.ethnologue.com/show-country. asp?name5Mozambique.
128. Norfolk&Tanner, n. 76 above, at pp. 27-8, illustrate a case where the lack of ID cards was a constraint in the delimitation and land titling process.
129. Global Forest Coalition, n. 23 above, at pp. 54-5.
130. See http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Countries/Pages/HumanRightsintheWorld.aspx.
131. Own observations; Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa (OSIfS), Mozambique-Justice Sector and the Rule of Law (OSIfS Africa, 2006), at p. 123.
132. Own observations; cf. also Section 3.4 above.
133. OSIfS Africa, n. 100 above, at pp. 125-6 and 135.
134. Norfolk & Tanner, n. 76 above, at p. 31
135. Serra & Tanner, n. 72 above, at p. 64
136. With the same conclusion: I. Bond et al.,REDD1in Dryland Forests: Issues and Prospects for Pro-oor REDD in the Miombo Woodlands of Southern Africa (IIED, 2010), at p. 24.
137. The term was shaped by Phelps et al., n. 14 above, and comprises-besides carbon storage in forests -a quality forest governance and the protection of rights of forest-dependent people. With regard to forest governance, it was pointed out that Mozambique has serious problems, which are linked in the first place with corruption
138. Mackenzie, n. 27 above, at p. 71, for Zambézia Province
139. M. Simula, Analysis of REDD1 Financing Gaps and Overlaps (REDD1 Partnership, 2010), at p. 58.
140. K. Dooley et al., Smoke and Mirrors: A Critical Assessment of the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FERN and Forest Peoples Programme, 2011), at p. 16. For more references
141. L. Westholm et al., REDD1 and Tenure: A Review of the Latest Developments in Research, Implementation and Debate (Focali, 2011), at p. 14.
142. Cf. also C. Davis et al., A Review of 25 Readiness Plan Ideas: Notes from the World Bank Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (WRI Working Paper, 2009), at p. 2.
143. M.L. Brown, 'Limiting Corrupt Incentives in a Global REDD Regime' (2010) 37(1) Ecology Law Quarterly, pp. 237-68, at 254. Not surprisingly, developing countries highly dependent on forest resources, and thus in the first line of potential countries eligible for REDD1funds, are among the most corrupt countries in the world
144. N. Kishor & R. Damania, 'Crime and Justice in the Garden of Eden: Improving Governance and Reducing Corruption in the Forestry Sector', in J.E. Campos & S. Pradhan (eds.), The Many Faces of Corrruption: Tracking Vulnerablities at the Sector Level (World Bank, 2007), pp. 89-114, at 90.
145. E.g., the costs of information and participation in the form of free, prior and informed consent for the implementation of REDD1 in the 40 provinces in Viet Nam were estimated to be US$14 million: T. Boyle, Application of Free Prior Informed Consent in the UN-REDD Programme: Experiences from Viet Nam, Presentation at the FPIC and Recourse Workshop, Panama, Oct. 2010, at p. 29.
146. I. Ring et al., 'Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Mitigation: What Role Can Economic Instruments Play?' (2010) 2(1-2) Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, pp. 50-8, at 52. In respect of corruption within REDD1 in detail, see Brown, n. 110 above.
147. A. Savaresi & E. Morgera, 'Ownership of Land, Forest and Carbon', in Costenbader, n. 85 above, pp. 15-34, at 34
148. Global Forest Coalition, n. 23 above, at p. 79.
149. A. Vatn & P. Vedeld, Getting Ready! A Study of a National Governance Structure for REDD1 (Noragric, 2011), at p. 8.
150. In detail, see Meridian Institute, n. 35 above, at p. 25
151. T. Chagas, Non-State Actors and REDD: Issues Surrounding the Participation of Indigenous People and Local Communities (Climate Focus, 2009), at pp. 7-9, available at: http://www.redd-oar.org/links/Legal%20Issues%20REDD. pdf.
152. Okereke & Dooley, n. 14 above, at p. 93.
153. UNFCCC, Adoption of the Rules of Procedure of the Conference of the Parties and its Subsidiary Bodies, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/1996/2, 22 May 1996, available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/cop2/02.pdf.
154. Pilot projects, e.g. in Bolivia, led to a cessation of deforestation in the project area but to accelerated deforestation in the rest of the country: see F. Pearce, 'Noel Kempff Project is "saving the forest" by Forcing Destruction Elsewhere', The Guardian, 11 Mar. 2010, available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/mar/11/greenwash-noel-kempff-forests.
155. Cf. the references in n. 16 above.
156. Hobley, n. 91 above, at pp. 30-1.
157. B.S. Karky & M. Skutsch, 'The Cost of Carbon Abatement through Community Forest Management in Nepal Himalaya' (2010) 69(3) Ecological Economics, pp. 666-72, at 671
158. Skutsch & Ba, n. 16 above, at p. 269.
159. IUFRO, Embracing Complexity: Meeting the Challenges of International Forest Governance (International Union of Forest Research Organizations, 2010), at p. 137.
160. E. Ostrom & M. Cox, 'Moving Beyond Panaceas: A Multi-Tiered Diagnostic Approach for Social- Ecological Analysis' (2010) 37(4) Environmental Conservation, pp. 451-63, at 460.