31-day study of cobalt(II) chloride ingestion in humans: Pharmacokinetics and clinical effects

Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health - Part A: Current Issues

Volumn 76, Issue 21, 2013, Pages 1210-1224

  Finley, Brent L ^a   Unice, Kenneth M ^b   Kerger, Brent D ^c   Otani, Joanne M ^a   Paustenbach, Dennis J ^a   Galbraith, David A ^a   Tvermoes, Brooke E ^a  

^a CARDNO CHEMRISK   (United States)

^b ChemRisk   (United States)

^c Cardno ChemRisk   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COBALT CHLORIDE; FERRITIN; HEMOGLOBIN;

ADULT; AGED; ARTICLE; BLOOD ANALYSIS; BLOOD CELL COUNT; CLINICAL CHEMISTRY; CONTROLLED STUDY; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIETARY INTAKE; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG SENSITIZATION; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG UPTAKE; ERYTHROCYTE; FATIGUE; FEMALE; FOLLOW UP; FOOD INTAKE; HEART FUNCTION; HEMATOCRIT; HEMOGLOBIN BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; KIDNEY FUNCTION; LIVER FUNCTION; LYMPHOCYTE TRANSFORMATION TEST; MALE; NORMAL HUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEX DIFFERENCE; SIDE EFFECT; STEADY STATE; THYROID FUNCTION;

ADMINISTRATION, ORAL; ADULT; AGED; COBALT; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; DRUG ADMINISTRATION SCHEDULE; ERYTHROCYTES; FEMALE; HALF-LIFE; HUMANS; LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84889571954     PISSN: 15287394     EISSN: 10872620     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2013.848391     Document Type: Article

References (68)

1. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2004. Toxicological profile for cobalt. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
2. Alexander, C. S. 1969. Cobalt and the heart. Ann. Intern. Med. 70: 411-413.
3. Alexander, C. S. 1972. Cobalt-beer cardiomyopathy: A clinical and pathologic study of twenty-eight cases.Am. J. Med. 53: 395-417.
4. Alimonti, A., Bocca, B., Mannella, E., Petrucci, F., Zennaro, F., Cotichini, R., D'Ippolito, C., Agresti, A., Caimi, S., and Forte, G. 2005. Assessment of reference values for selected elements in a healthy urban population. Ann. Ist. Super. Sanita 41: 181-187. (Pubitemid 43169862)
5. Anderson, M. B., Pedigo, N. G., Katz, R. P., and George, W. J. 1992. Histopathology of testes from mice chronically treated with cobalt. Reprod. Toxicol. 6: 41-50.
6. Ayala-Fierro, F., Firriolo, J. M., and Carter, D. E. 1999. Disposition, toxicity, and intestinal absorption of cobaltous chloride in male Fischer 344 rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 56: 571-591. (Pubitemid 29195255)
7. Barceloux, D. 1999. Cobalt. Clin. Toxicol. 37: 201-216.
8. Bowie, E. A., and Hurley, P. J. 1975. Cobalt chloride in the treatment of refractory anaemia in patients undergoing long-term haemodialysis. Aust. N. Z. J. Med. 5: 306-314.
9. Cable, R. G., Glynn, S. A., Kiss, J. E., Mast, A. E., Steele, W. R., Murphy, E. L., Wright, D. J., Sacher, R. A., Gottschall, J. L., Vij, V., and Simon, T. L. 2011. Iron deficiency in blood donors: Analysis of enrollment data from the REDS-II Donor Iron Status Evaluation (RISE) study. Transfusion (Paris) 51: 511-522.
10. Christensen, J. M., Poulsen, O. M., and Thomsen, M. 1993. A short-term cross-over study on oral administration of soluble and insoluble cobalt compounds: Sex differences in biological levels. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 65: 233-240. (Pubitemid 24060675)
11. Daniel, J., Ziaee, H., Pradhan, C., and McMinn, D. J. 2009. Six-year results of a prospective study of metal ion levels in young patients with metal-on-metal hip resurfacings. J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 91: 176-179.
12. Desert Rain Nutrition. 2012. Liquid ionic angstrom cobalt. Silt, CO: Desert Rain Nutrition. Available at http://www.desert rainnutrition.com/index. phpmain-page=product-info&cPath=1-8&products-id= 192 (accessed January 19, 2012).
13. Discount Remedies, Inc. 2011. Cobalt supplement, ionic mineral supplement, 60 day supply-8 oz., MineralLife: Product description and supplement facts. Casper, WY: Discount Remedies, Inc. Available at http://www. discountremediesinc.com/ionic-mineral-cobalt-supplement-8-oz.html (accessed January 5, 2011).
14. Duckham, J. M., and Lee, H. A. 1976. The treatment of refractory anaemia of chronic renal failure with cobalt chloride. Q. J. Med. 45: 277-294.
15. Elinder, C. G. 1984. Health hazards from exposure to cobalt with special reference to carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic effects. Toxicol Environ Chem 7: 251-256. (Pubitemid 14165775)
16. European Chemicals Agency. 2013. Registered substances. Available at http://echa.europa. eu/web/guest/information-on-chemicals/reg istered-substances (accessed July 12, 2013)
17. European Food Safety Authority. 2009. Scientific opinion on the use of cobalt compounds as additives in animal nutrition. EFSA J. 7: 1-45
18. Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals. 2003. Safe upper levels for vitamins and minerals. London: Food Standards Agency.
19. Finch, C. A., Cook, J. D., Labbe, R. F., and Culala, M. 1977. Effect of blood donation on iron stores as evaluated by serum ferritin. Blood 50: 441-447. (Pubitemid 8180427)
20. Finley, B. L., Monnot, A. D., Gaffney, S. H., and Paustenbach, D. J. 2012a. Dose-response relationships for blood cobalt concentrations and health effects: A review of the literature and application of a biokinetic model. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B 15: 493-523.
21. Finley, B. L., Monnot, A. D., Paustenbach, D. J., and Gaffney, S. H. 2012b. Derivation of a chronic oral reference dose for cobalt. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 64: 491-503.
22. Firriolo, J. M., Ayala-Fierro, F., Sipes, I. G., and Carter, D. E. 1999. Absorption and disposition of cobalt naphthenate in rats after a single oral dose. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 58: 383-395.
23. Gardner, F. H. 1953. The use of cobaltous chloride in the anemia associated with chronic renal disease. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 41: 56-64.
24. Glader, B. 2004. Destruction of erythrocytes. In Wintrobe's clinical hematology. Volume 1, 11th ed., ed. M. M. Wintrobe and J. P. Greer, 249-265.
25. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Gross, R. T., Kriss, J. P., and Spaet, T. H. 1955. The hematopoietic and goitrogenic effects of cobaltous chloride in patients with sickle cell anemia. Pediatrics 15: 284-290.
26. Haga, Y., Cline, N., Hatori, N., Hoffmann-Bang, C., Pehrsson, S. K., and Ryden, L. 1996. Impaired myocardial function following chronic cobalt exposure in an isolated rat heart model. Trace Elem. Electrolyt. 13: 69-74. (Pubitemid 26135042)
27. Harp, M. J., and Scoular, F. I. 1952. Cobalt metabolism of young college women on selfselected diets. J. Nutr. 47: 67-72.
28. Hokin, B., Adams, M., Ashton, J., and Louie, H. 2004. Comparison of the dietary cobalt intake in three different Australian diets. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 13: 289-291. (Pubitemid 39329886)
29. Kerger, B. D., Gerads, R., Gurleyuk, H., Thuett, K. A., Finley, B. L., and Paustenbach, D. J. 2013a. Cobalt speciation assay for human serum. Part I. Method for measuring large and small molecular cobalt and albumin-binding capacity using size exclusion chromatography with inductivelycoupled plasma-mass spectroscopy detection. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 95: 687-708.
30. Kerger, B. D., Tvermoes, B., Unice, K., Finley, B. L., Paustenbach, D. J., and Galbraith, D. 2013b. Cobalt speciation assay for human serum. Part II. Method validation in a study of human volunteers ingesting cobalt(II) chloride dietary supplement for 90 days. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 95: 709-718.
31. Kriss, J. P., Carnes, W. H., and Gross, R. T. 1955. Hypothyroidism and thyroid hyperplasia in patients treated with cobalt. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 157: 117-121.
32. Leggett, R. W. 2008. The biokinetics of inorganic cobalt in the human body. Sci. Total Environ. 389: 259-269. (Pubitemid 350101751)
33. Licht, A., Oliver, M., and Rachmilewitz, E. A. 1972. Optic atrophy following treatment with cobalt chloride in a patient with pancytopenia and hypercellular marrow. Isr. J. Med. Sci. 8: 61-66
34. Mahida, V. I., Bhatti, A., and Gupte, S. C. 2008. Iron status of regular voluntary blood donors. Asian J. Transfus. Sci. 2: 9-12.
35. Meltzer, H. M., Brantsaeter, A. L., Borch-Iohnsen, B., Ellingsen, D. G., Alexander, J., Thomassen, Y., Stigum, H., and Ydersbond, T. A. 2010. Low iron stores are related to higher blood concentrations of manganese, cobalt and cadmium in non-smoking, Norwegian women in the HUNT 2 study. Environ. Res. 110: 497-504.
36. Minoia, C., Sabbioni, E., Apostoli, P., Pietra, R., Pozzoli, L., Gallorini, M., Nicolaou, G., Alessio, L., and Capodaglio, E. 1990. Trace element reference values in tissues from inhabitants of the European community. I. A study of 46 elements in urine, blood and serum of Italian subjects. Sci. Total Environ. 95: 89-105.
37. Mohiuddin, S. M., Taskar, P. K., Rheault, M., Roy, P. E., Chenard, J., and Morin, Y. 1970. Experimental cobalt cardiomyopathy. Am. Heart J. 80: 532-543.
38. Morin, Y., Tetu, A., and Mercier, G. 1971. Cobalt cardiomyopathy: Clinical aspects. Br. Heart J. 33: 175-178.
39. Moshtaghie, A. A., Badii, A., and Mohammadian, T. 2004. The comparative study of binding characteristics of cobalt and iron to human serum transferrin. J. Res. Med. Sci. 9: 250-254.
40. Mother Earth Minerals, Inc. 2011. Cobalt. Ogden, UT: Mother Earth Minerals, Inc. Available at http://www.meminerals.com/catalog/ProductDetails. aspProductID= MINE4S00XEI8Co&DealerID=&Express=1 (accessed January 5, 2011).
41. Nation, J. R., Bourgeois, A. E., Clark, D. E., and Hare, M. F. 1983. The effects of chronic cobalt exposure on behavior and metallothionein levels in the adult rat. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 5: 9-15. (Pubitemid 13133175)
42. Newman, B. H. 2004. Blood donor complications after whole-blood donation. Curr. Opin. Hematol. 11: 339-345. (Pubitemid 40221051)
43. Oettl, K., and Stauber, R. E. 2007. Physiological and pathological changes in the redox state of human serum albumin critically influence its binding properties. Br. J. Pharmacol. 151: 580-590. (Pubitemid 47016287)
44. Onkelinx, C. 1976. Compartment analysis of cobalt(II) metabolism in rats of various ages. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 38: 425-438.
45. Patty, F. A., Fassett, D. W., and Irish, D. D. 1962. The metals. In Industrial hygiene and toxicology. Volume II: Toxicology, 2nd rev. ed., 1132-1194.
46. New York, NY: Wiley. Paustenbach, D. J., Tvermoes, B. E., Unice, K. M., Finley, B. L., and Kerger, B. D. 2013a. A review of the health hazards posed by cobalt. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 43: 316-362.
47. Paustenbach, D. J., Galbraith, D. A., and Finley, B. L. 2013b. Interpreting cobalt blood concentrations in hip implant patients. 2013. Clin Toxicol. DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2013. 857024.
48. Pedigo, N. G., George, W. J., and Anderson, M. B. 1988. Effects of acute and chronic exposure to cobalt on male reproduction in mice. Reprod. Toxicol. 2: 45-53.
49. Reuber, S., Kreuzer, M., and Kirchgessner, M. 1994. Interactions of cobalt and iron in absorption and retention. J. Trace Elem. Electrolytes Health Dis. 8: 151-158.
50. Rohn, R. J., and Bond, W. H. 1953. Observations on some hematological effects of cobalt-iron mixtures. Lancet 73: 317-324.
51. Sandusky, G. E., Crawford, M. P., and Roberts, E. D. 1981. Experimental cobalt cardiomyopathy in the dog: A model for cardiomyopathy in dogs and man. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 60: 263-278. (Pubitemid 11060819)
52. Sederholm, T., Kouvalainen, K., and Lamberg, B. A. 1968. Cobalt-induced hypothyroidism and polycythemia in lipoid nephrosis. Acta Med. Scand. 184: 301-306.
53. Simon, T. L., Garry, P. J., and Hooper, E. M. 1981. Iron stores in blood donors. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 245: 2038-2043. (Pubitemid 11099104)
54. Simonsen, L. O., Brown, A. M., Harbak, H., Kristensen, B. I., and Bennekou, P. 2011a. Cobalt uptake and binding in human red blood cells. Blood Cells Mol. Dis. 46: 266-276.
55. Simonsen, L. O., Harbak, H., and Bennekou, P. 2011b. Passive transport pathways for Ca(2+) and Co(2+) in human red blood cells. (57)Co(2+) as a tracer for Ca(2+) influx. Blood Cells Mol. Dis. 47: 214-225.
56. Simonsen, L. O., Harbak, H., and Bennekou, P. 2012. Cobalt metabolism and toxicology-A brief update. Sci. Total Environ. 432C: 210-215.
57. Smith, T., Edmonds, C. J., and Barnaby, C. F. 1972. Absorption and retention of cobalt in man by whole-body counting. Health Phys. 22: 359-367.
58. Sorbie, J., Olatunbosun, D., Corbett, W. E., and Valberg, L. S. 1971. Cobalt excretion test for the assessment of body iron stores. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 104: 777-782.
59. Stokinger, H. E. 1981. The metals. In Patty's industrial hygiene and toxicology, Vol. II A: Toxicology, 3rd rev. ed., ed. F. A. Patty, G. D. Clayton and F. E. Clayton, 1493-2060.
60. New York, NY: Wiley. Taylor, A., Marks, V., Shabaan, A. A., Mahmood, H. A., Duckham, J. M., and Lee, H. A. 1977. Cobalt-induced lipaemia and erythropoiesis. In Clinical chemistry and chemical toxicology of metals: Proceedings of the First International Symposium, 105-108.
61. Taylor, D. M. 1962. The absorption of cobalt from the gastrointestinal tract of the rat. Phys. Med. Biol. 6: 445-451.
62. Thomas, R. G., Furchner, J. E., London, J. E., Drake, G. A., Wilson, J. S., and Richmond, C. R. 1976. Comparative metabolism of radionuclides in mammals-X. Retention of tracer-level cobalt in the mouse, rat, monkey and dog. Health Phys. 31: 323-333.
63. Tvermoes, B. E., Finley, B. L., Unice, K. M., Otani, J. M., Paustenbach, D. J., and Galbraith, D. A. 2013. Cobalt whole blood concentrations in healthy adult male volunteers following two-weeks of ingesting a cobalt supplement. Food Chem. Toxicol. 53: 432-439.
64. Unice, K., Monnot, A., Gaffney, S. H., Tvermoes, B., Thuett, K., Paustenbach, D., and Finley, B. 2012. Inorganic cobalt supplementation: Prediction of cobalt levels in whole blood and urine using a biokinetic model. Food Chem. Toxicol. 50: 2456-2461.
65. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2011. Recommended use of body weight 3/4 as the default method in derivation of the oral reference dose. EPA/100/R11/00010 Final. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
66. Valberg, L. S., Ludwig, J., and Olatunbosun, D. 1969. Alteration in cobalt absorption in patients with disorders of iron metabolism. Gastroenterology 56: 241-251.
67. Wolf, J., and Levy, I. J. 1954. Treatment of sickle cell anemia with cobalt chloride. Arch. Intern. Med. 93: 387-396.
68. World Health Organization. 2006. Cobalt and inorganic cobalt compounds. Concise international chemical assessment document: 69. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.