Childhood Trauma in Psychotic and Dissociative Disorders

Psychosis, Trauma and Dissociation: Emerging Perspectives on Severe Psychopathology

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 135-150

  Schäfer, Ingo ^a   Ross, Colin A ^b   Read, John ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER HAMBURG EPPENDORF   (Germany)

^b Institute for Psychological Trauma   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and childhood physical abuse (CPA); Childhood trauma etiological factor for dissociative disorders; Childhood trauma and clinical characteristics; Childhood trauma in psychotic and dissociative disorders; Dissociation and psychosis; Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified (DDNOS); DSM IV criteria in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder; DSM IV dissociative disorders; Etiology, genetic, family, adoption and cross fostering studies of psychosis; Pierre Janet and trauma model of dissociative disorders

Indexed keywords

EID: 84889357388     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470699652.ch10     Document Type: Chapter

References (132)

1. Abeles, M. and Schilder, P. (1935) Psychogenic loss of personal identity: amnesia. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 34, 587-604.
2. Akhtar, S. and Brenner, I. (1979) Differential diagnoses of fugue-like states. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 381-5.
3. Allen, J.G. (2001) Traumatic Relationships and Serious Mental Disorders, JohnWiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester.
4. American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn (DSM-IV), Author, Washington, DC.
5. Bebbington, P.E., Bhugra, D., Brugha, T. et al. (2004) Psychosis, victimisation and childhood disadvantage: evidence from the second British National Survey of Psychiatric Morbidity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 185, 220-6.
6. Bentall, R.P. (2006) The environment and psychosis: rethinking the evidence, in Trauma and Psychosis. New Directions for Theory and Therapy (eds W. Larkin and A.P. Morrison), Routledge, London, pp. 7-22.
7. Bernat, J.A., Ronfeldt, H.M., Calhoun, K.S. and Arias, L. (1998) Prevalence of traumatic events and peritraumatic predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms in a non-clinical sample of college students. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 645-64.
8. Bernstein, E.M. and Putnam, F.W. (1986) Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 727-35.
9. Bernstein, D.P. and Fink, L. (1998) Childhood Trauma Questionnaire: A Retrospective Self-Report. Manual, The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.
10. Bifulco, A., Brown, G.W. and Adler, Z. (1991) Early sexual abuse and clinical depression in adult life. British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 115-22.
11. Bleuler, E. (1950) Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias, International Universities Press, New York. (Original work published 1911)
12. Bremner, J.D. (2002) Does Stress Damage the Brain? W.W. Norton, New York.
13. Bremner, J.D. and Brett, E. (1997) Trauma-related dissociative states and longterm psychopathology in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 37-49.
14. Bremner, J.D., Krystal, J.H., Southwick, S.M. and Charney, D.S. (1995) Functional neuranatomical correlates of the effects of stress on memory. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 4, 527-33.
15. Breuer, J. and Freud, S. (1986) Studies on Hysteria, Pelican Books, New York. (original work published 1895)
16. Briere, J. and Runtz, M. (1988) Symptomatology associated with childhood sexual victimization in a non-clinical adult sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 12 (1), 51-9.
17. Brown, G.R., McBride, L., Bauer, M.S. and Williford, W.O. (2005) Impact of childhood abuse on the course of bipolar disorder: a replication study in U.S. veterans. Journal of Affective Disorders, 89 (1-3), 57-67.
18. Browne, A. and Finkelhor, D. (1986) Impact of child sexual abuse: a review of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 99 (1), 66-77.
19. Cardena, E. and Spiegel, D. (1989) Dissociative reactions to the Bay Area earthquake. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 474-8.
20. Carlson, E.B., Dalenberg, C., Armstrong, J. et al. (2001) Multivariate prediction of posttraumatic symptoms in psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 549-67.
21. Cloitre, M., Tardiff, K., Marzuk, P.M. et al. (1996) Childhood abuse and subsequent sexual assault among female inpatients. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9 (3), 473-82.
22. Cohen, N.J. and Eichenbaum, H. (1993) Memory, Amnesia, and the Hippocampal System, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
23. Compton, M.T., Furman, A.C. and Kaslow, N.J. (2004) Preliminary evidence of an association between childhood abuse and cannabis dependence among African American first-episode schizophrenia-spectrum disorder patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 76 (3), 311-6.
24. Coons, P.M. (1986) Treatment progress in 20 patients with multiple personality disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 715-21.
25. Coons, P.M. (1994). Confirmation of childhood abuse in child and adolescent cases of multiple personality disorder and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 461-4.
26. Coons, P.M. (1999) Psychogenic or dissociative fugue: a clinical investigation of five cases. Psychological Reports, 84, 881-6.
27. Coons, P.M. (2000) Dissociative fugue, in Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 7th edn (eds B.J. Sadock and V. Sadock), Williams, & Wilkins, New York, Lippincott, pp. 1549-52.
28. Coons, P.M., Bowman, E.S. and Milstein, V. (1988) Multiple personality disorder: a clinical investigation of 50 cases. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 176, 519-27.
29. Dancu, C.V., Riggs, D.S., Heasrt-Ikeda, D. et al. (1996) Dissociative experiences and posttraumatic stress disorder among female victims of criminal assault and rape. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 253-67.
30. Darves-Bornoz, J.M., Lemperiere, T., Degiovanni, A. and Gaillard, P. (1995) Sexual victimization in women with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 30 (2), 78-84.
31. Feeny, N.C., Zoellner, L.A. and Foa, E.B. (2000) Anger, dissociation, and posttraumatic stress disorder among female assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 89-100.
32. Feinstein, A. (1989) Posttraumatic stress disorder: a descriptive study supporting DSM-III-R criteria. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 665-6.
33. Felitti, V.J., Anda, R.F., Nordenberg, D. et al. (1998) Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14 (4), 245-58.
34. Ferguson, K.S. and Dacey, C.M. (1997) Anxiety, depression, and dissociation in women health care providers reporting a history of childhood psychological abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 21 (10), 941-52.
35. Fergusson, D.M., Horwood, L.J. and Lynskey, M.T. (1996) Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: II. Psychiatric outcomes of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35 (10), 1365-74.
36. Fisher, C. (1945) Amnestic states in war neuroses: the psychogenesis of fugues. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 14, 437-68.
37. Fisher, C. (1947) The psychogenesis of fugue states. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 1, 211-21.
38. Fisher, C. and Joseph, E.D. (1949) Fugue with loss of personal identity. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 18, 480-93.
39. Ford, C.V. (1989) Psychogenic fugue, in Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders, Vol. 3 (ed. T.B. Karasu), American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, pp. 2190-6.
40. Freeland, A., Manchanda, R., Chiu, S. et al. (1993) Four cases of supposed multiple personality disorder: evidence for iatrogenesis. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 38, 245-7.
41. Fullerton, C.S., Ursano, R.J., Epstein, R.S. et al. (2000) Peritraumatic dissociation following motor vehicle accidents: relationship to prior trauma and prior major depression. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188, 267-72.
42. Garno, J.L., Goldberg, J.F., Ramirez, P.M. and Ritzler, B.A. (2005) Impact of childhood abuse on the clinical course of bipolar disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 121-5.
43. Gearon, J.S., Kaltman, S.I., Brown, C. and Bellack, A.S. (2003) Traumatic life events and PTSD among women with substance use disorders and schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services, 54 (4), 523-8.
44. Gladstone, G.L., Parker, G.B., Mitchell, P.B. et al. (2004) Implications of childhood trauma for depressed women: an analysis of pathways from childhood sexual abuse to deliberate self-harm and revictimization. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161 (8), 1417-25.
45. Goff, D.C., Brotman, A.W., Kindlon, D. et al. (1991a) The delusion of possession in chronically psychotic patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179 (9), 567-71.
46. Goff, D.C., Brotman, A.W., Kindlon, D. et al. (1991b) Self-reports of childhood abuse in chronically psychotic patients. Psychiatry Research, 37, 73-80.
47. Goldberg, J.F. and Garno, J.L. (2005) Development of posttraumatic stress disorder in adult bipolar patients with histories of severe childhood abuse. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 39 (6), 595-601.
48. Goldfarb, B. (1992) Under pressure. AMA News, November, 23-24.
49. Hammersley, P., Dias, A., Todd, G. et al. (2003) Childhood trauma and hallucinations in bipolar affective disorder: preliminary investigation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 543-7.
50. Hardy, A., Fowler, D., Freeman, D. et al. (2005) Trauma and hallucinatory experience in psychosis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193 (8), 501-7.
51. Heins, T., Gray, A. and Tennant,M. (1990) Persisting hallucinations following childhood sexual abuse. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 24 (4), 561-5.
52. Hien, D., Cohen, L. and Campbell, A. (2005) Is traumatic stress a vulnerability factor for women with substance use disorders? Clinical Psychology Review, 25 (6), 813-23.
53. Hillman, R.G. (1981) The psychopathology of being held hostage. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 1193-7.
54. Holowka, D.W., King, S., Saheb, D. et al. (2003) Childhood abuse and dissociative symptoms in adult schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 60 (1), 87-90.
55. Honig, A., Romme, M.A., Ensink, B.J. et al. (1998) Auditory hallucinations: a comparison between patients and non-patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186 (10), 646-51.
56. Janet, P. (1965) The Major Symptoms of Hysteria, Hafner, New York. (Original work published 1907)
57. Janet, P. (1977) The Mental State of Hystericals, University Publications of America, Washington, DC. (original work published 1901)
58. Janssen, I., Krabbendam, L., Bak, M. et al. (2004) Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 109 (1), 38-45.
59. Kaufman, M.L., Kimble, M.O., Kaloupek, D.G. et al. (2002) Peritraumatic dissociation and physiological response to trauma-relevant stimuli in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190, 167-74.
60. Kendler, K.S., Bulik, C.M., Silberg, J. et al. (2000) Childhood sexual abuse and adult psychiatric and substance use disorders in women: an epidemiological and cotwin control analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57 (10), 953-9.
61. Kihlstrom, J.F., Tataryn, D.J. and Hoyt, I. (1984) Dissociative disorders, in Comprehensive Handbook of Psychopathology (eds P.B. Sutker and H.E. Adams), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 203-34.
62. Koopman, C., Classen, C. and Spiegel, D. (1994) Predictors of posttraumatic stress ymptoms among survivors of the Oakland/Berkeley, Calif., firestorm. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 888-94.
63. Koopman, C., Classen, C. and Spiegel, D. (1996) Dissociative responses in the immediate aftermath of the Oakland/Berkeley firestorm. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 521-40.
64. Lataster, T., van Os, J., Drukker, M. et al. (2006) Childhood victimisation and developmental expression of non-clinical delusional ideation and hallucinatory experiences: victimisation and non-clinical psychotic experiences. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41 (6), 423-8.
65. Leverich, G.S., McElroy, S.L., Suppes, T. et al. (2002) Early physical and sexual abuse associated with an adverse course of bipolar illness. Biological Psychiatry, 51 (4), 288-97.
66. Loewenstein, R.J. (1991) Psychogenic amnesia and psychogenic fugue: a comprehensive review, in American Psychiatric Press Review of Psychiatry (eds A. Tasman and S.M. Goldfinger), American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, pp. 189-221.
67. Loewenstein, R.J. (1993) Psychogenic amnesia and psychogenic fugue: a comprehensive review, in Dissociative Disorders, A Clinical Review (ed. D. Spiegel), Sidran Press, Lutherville, MD, pp. 45-77.
68. Loewenstein, R.J. (1995) Dissociative amnesia and dissociative fugue, in Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders, Vol. 2 (ed. G.O. Gabard), American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, pp. 1569-97.
69. Loewenstein, R.J. (1996) Dissociative amnesia and dissociative fugue, in Handbook of Dissociation: Theoretical, Empirical and Clinical Perspectives (eds L.K. Michelson and W.J. Ray), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 307-36.
70. Lysaker, P.H.,Meyer, P., Evans, J.D. and Marks, K.A. (2001) Neurocognitive and symptom correlates of self-reported childhood sexual abuse in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 13 (2), 89-92.
71. Lysaker, P.H., Beattie, N.L., Strasburger, A.M. and Davis, L.W. (2005) Reported history of child sexual abuse in schizophrenia: associations with heightened symptom levels and poorer participation over four months in vocational rehabilitation. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193 (12), 790-5.
72. Lysaker, P.H., Nees, M.A., Lancaster, R.S. and Davis, L.W. (2004) Vocational function among person with schizophrenia with and without history of childhood sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17 (5), 435-8.
73. Lysaker, P.H., Wickett, A.M., Lancaster, R.S. and Davis, L.W. (2004) Neurocognitive deficits and history of childhood abuse in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: associations with Cluster B personality traits. Schizophrenia Research, 68 (1), 87-94.
74. Lysaker, P.H. and Salyers, M.P. (2007). Anxiety symptoms in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: associations with social functions, positive and negative symptoms, hope and trauma history. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 116, 290-8.
75. MacMillan, H.L., Fleming, J.E., Streiner, D.L. et al. (2001) Childhood abuse and lifetime psychopathology in a community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158 (11), 1878-83.
76. Maercker, A., Beauducel, A. and Schutzwohl, M. (2000) Trauma severity and initial reactions as precipitating factors for posttraumatic stress symptoms and chronic dissociation in former political prisoners. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 651-60.
77. Marmar, C.R., Weiss, D.S., Schlenger, W.E. et al. (1999) Longitudinal course and predictors of continuing distress following critical incident exposure in emergency services personnel. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 187, 15-22.
78. Morgan, C.A., Hazlett, G., Wang, S. et al. (2001) Symptoms of dissociation in humans experiencing acute, uncontrollable stress: a prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1239-47.
79. Morgan, C. and Fisher, H. (2007) Environment and schizophrenia: environmental factors in schizophrenia: childhood trauma -a critical review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33 (1), 3-10.
80. Morrison, A.P., Frame, L. and Larkin, W. (2003) Relationships between trauma and psychosis: a review and integration. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42 (Pt 4), 331-53.
81. Moskowitz, A. (2004) 'Scared stiff': catatonia as an evolutionary-based fear response. Psychological Review, 111 (4), 984-1002.
82. Moskowitz, A. and Corstens, D. (2007) Auditory hallucinations: psychotic symptom or dissociative experience? Journal of Psychological Trauma, 6 (2/3), 35-63.
83. Moskowitz, A., Read, J., Farrelly, D. et al. (in press) Are psychotic symptoms traumatic in origin and dissociative in kind?, in Dissociation and the Dissociative Disorders: DSM-IV and Beyond (eds P.F. Dell and J. O'Neil), Routledge Chapman & Hall, London.
84. Mullen, P.E., Martin, J.L., Anderson, J.C. et al. (1993) Childhood sexual abuse and mental health in adult life. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 721-32.
85. Nelson, E.C., Heath, A.C., Madden, P.A. et al. (2002) Association between self-reported childhood sexual abuse and adverse psychosocial outcomes: results from a twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59 (2), 139-45.
86. Nemeroff, C.B., Heim, C.M., Thase, M.E. et al. (2003) Differential responses to psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy in patients with chronic forms of major depression and childhood trauma. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 100 (24), 14293-6.
87. Neria, Y., Bromet, E.J., Sievers, S. et al. (2002) Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in psychosis: findings from a first-admission cohort. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70 (1), 246-51.
88. Nijenhuis, E.R.S., Van der Hart, O. and Steele, K. (2002) The emerging psychobiology of trauma-related dissociation and dissociative disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 21, 1081-98.
89. Noyes, R., Hoenk, P.R., Kuperman, S. and Slymen, D.J. (1977) Depersonalization in accident victims and psychiatric patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 164, 401-7.
90. Offen, L.,Waller, G. and Thomas, G. (2003) Is reported childhood sexual abuse associated with the psychopathological characteristics of patients who experience auditory hallucinations? Child Abuse and Neglect, 27 (8), 919-27.
91. Piper, A. and Merskey, H.A. (2005a) The persistence of folly: a critical examination of dissociative identity disorder. Part I. The excesses of an improbable concept. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 49, 592-600.
92. Piper A. and Merskey, H. (2005b) The persistence of folly: critical examination of dissociative identity disorder. Part II. The defence and decline of multiple personality or dissociative identity disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 49, 678-83.
93. Pirard, S., Sharon, E., Kang, S.K. et al. (2005) Prevalence of physical and sexual abuse among substance abuse patients and impact on treatment outcomes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 78 (1), 57-64.
94. Putnam, F.W. (1989) Diagnosis and Treatment of Multiple Personality Disorder, Guilford, New York.
95. Putnam, F.W., Guroff, J.J., Silberman, E.K. et al. (1986) The clinical phenomenology of multiple personality disorder: review of 100 recent cases. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 47, 285-93.
96. Read, J. (1997) Child abuse and psychosis: a literature review and implications for professional practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 28 (5), 448-56.
97. Read, J., Agar, K., Argyle, N. and Aderhold, V. (2003) Sexual and physical abuse during childhood and adulthood as predictors of hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practive, 76, 1-22.
98. Read, J., Agar, K., Barker-Collo, S. et al. (2001) Assessing suicidality in adults: integrating childhood trauma as a major risk factor. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32, 367-72.
99. Read, J. and Argyle, N. (1999) Hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorder among adult psychiatric inpatients with a history of child abuse. Psychiatric Services, 50 (11), 1467-72.
100. Read, J. and Hammersley, P. (2005) Child sexual abuse and schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 76.
101. Read, J. and Ross, C.A. (2003) Psychological trauma and psychosis: another reason why people diagnosed schizophrenic must be offered psychological therapies. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry, 31 (1), 247-68.
102. Read, J., van Os, J., Morrison, A.P. and Ross, C.A. (2005) Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: a literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 112 (5), 330-50.
103. Resnick, S.G., Bond, G.R. and Mueser, K.T. (2003) Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in people with schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112 (3), 415-23.
104. Romme, M.A.J. and Escher, S.D.M. (2006) Trauma and hearing voices, in Trauma and Psychosis, New Directions for Theory and Therapy (eds W. Larkin and A.P. Morrison), Routledge, London, pp. 162-92.
105. Ross, C.A. (1997) Dissociative Identity Disorder: Diagnosis, Clinical Features, and Treatment of Multiple Personality, 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
106. Ross, C.A. and Howley, J. (2003) The structure of dissociative Fugue: a case report. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 4, 109-24.
107. Ross, C.A. (2004) Schizophrenia: Innovations in Diagnosis and Treatment, Haworth Press, New York.
108. Ross, C.A. (2007) The Trauma Model: A Solution to the Problem of Comorbidity in Psychiatry, Manitou Communications, Richardson, TX.
109. Ross, C.A., Anderson, G. and Clark, P. (1994) Childhood abuse and the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 45 (5), 489-91.
110. Ross, C.A. and Joshi, S. (1992) Schneiderian symptoms and childhood trauma in the general population. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 33 (4), 269-73.
111. Ross, C.A. and Keyes, B. (2004) Dissociation and schizophrenia. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 5 (3), 69-83.
112. Ross, C.A., Miller, S.D., Reagor, P. et al. (1990) Structured interview data on 102 cases of multiple personality disorder from four centers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 596-601.
113. Ross, C.A., Norton, G.R., and Wozney, K. (1989) Multiple personality disorder: An analysis of 236 cases. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 34, 413-18.
114. Rutter, M. and Maughan, B. (1997) Psychosocial adversities in childhood and adult psychopathology. Journal of Personality Disorders, 11 (1), 4-18.
115. Schäfer, I., Harfst, T., Aderhold, V. et al. (2006) Childhood trauma and dissociation in female patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders: an exploratory study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194 (2), 135-8.
116. Scheller-Gilkey, G., Moynes, K., Cooper, I. et al. (2004) Early life stress and PTSD symptoms in patients with comorbid schizophrenia and substance abuse. Schizophrenia Research, 69 (2-3), 167-74.
117. Schenkel, L.S., Spaulding, W.D., DiLillo, D. and Silverstein, S.M. (2005) Histories of childhood maltreatment in schizophrenia: relationships with premorbid functioning, symptomatology, and cognitive deficits. Schizophrenia Research, 76 (2-3), 273-86.
118. Schultz, R.K., Braun, B.G. and Kluft, R.P. (1989) Multiple personality disorder: phenomenology of selected variables in comparison to major depression. Dissociation, 2, 45-51.
119. Scott, J., Chant, D., Andrews, G., Martin, G. and McGrath, J. (2007) Association between trauma exposure and delusional experiences in a large community-based sample. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 339-43.
120. Shalev, A.Y., Peri, T., Canetti, L. and Schreiber, S. (1996) Predictors of PTSD in injured trauma survivors: a prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 219-25.
121. Shevlin, M., Dorahy, M. and Adamson, G. (2007a) Childhood traumas and hallucinations: an analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 41 (3-4), 222-8.
122. Shevlin, M., Dorahy, M.J. and Adamson, G. (2007b) Trauma and psychosis: an analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164 (1), 166-9.
123. Silverman, A.B., Reinherz, H.Z. and Giaconia, R.M. (1996) The long-term sequelae of child and adolescent abuse: a longitudinal community study. Child Abuse and Neglect, 20 (8), 709-23.
124. Simeon, D. and Abugel, J. (2006) Feeling Unreal: Depersonalization Disorder and the Loss of Self, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
125. Spauwen, J., Krabbendam, L., Lieb, R. et al. (2006) Impact of psychological trauma on the development of psychotic symptoms: relationship with psychosis proneness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 527-33.
126. Soderberg, S., Kullgren, G. and Salander Renberg, E. (2004) Childhood sexual abuse predicts poor outcome seven years after parasuicide. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39 (11), 916-20.
127. Spataro, J., Mullen, P.E., Burgess, P.M. et al. (2004) Impact of child sexual abuse on mental health: prospective study in males and females. British Journal of Psychiatry, 184, 416-21.
128. Spiegel, D. and Butler, L.D. (2002) Acute stress in response to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Bulletin of the Canadian Psychiatric Association, 34, 15-8.
129. Stengel, E. and Vienna, M.D. (1941) On the aetiology of the fugue states. Journal of Mental Science, 87, 572-99.
130. Teicher, M.H., Samson, J.A., Polcari, A. and McGreenery, C.E. (2006) Sticks, stones, and hurtful words: relative effects of various forms of childhood maltreatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163 (6), 993-1000.
131. Whitfield, C.L., Dube, S.R., Felitti, V.J. and Anda, R.F. (2005) Adverse childhood experiences and hallucinations. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29 (7), 797-810.
132. Zelikovsky, N., and Lynn, S.J. (2002) Childhood psychological and physical abuse: Psychopathology, dissociation and Axis I diagnosis. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 3, 27-58.