Trauma and Memory Revisited

Memory and Emotion: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 259-291

  Kihlstrom, John F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Amnesia; Memory; Stress disorder; Symptoms; Trauma

Indexed keywords

EID: 84889323225     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470756232.ch12     Document Type: Chapter

References (157)

1. Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358-372.
2. American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
3. Anderson, M. C. & Green, C. (2001). Suppressing unwanted memories by executive control. Nature, 410 (15 March), 366-369.
4. Anderson, M. C. & Levy, B. (2002). Repression can (and should) be studied empirically. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 502-503.
5. Arrigo, J. M. & Pezdek, K. (1997). Lessons from the study of psychogenic amnesia. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 148-152.
6. Bailey, J. M. & Shriver, A. (1999). Does childhood sexual abuse cause borderline personality disorder. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 25, 45-57.
7. Bass, E. & Davis, L. W. (1988). The courage to heal: A guide for women survivors of child sexual abuse. New York: Harper & Row.
8. Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
9. Beitchman, J. H., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E., & DaCosta, G. A. (1991). A review of the short-term effects of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 15, 537-556.
10. Beitchman, J. H., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E., & DaCosta, G. A. (1992). A review of the long-term effects of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 16, 101-118.
11. Berntsen, D. (2001). Involuntary memories of emotional events: Do memories of traumas and extremely happy events differ? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, S135-S158.
12. Berntsen, D., Willert, M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Splintered memories or vivid landmarks? Qualities and organization of traumatic memories with and without PTSD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 675-694.
13. Bjork, R. A. (1972). Theoretical implications of directed forgetting. In A. W. Melton & E. Martin (Eds.), Coding processes in human memory (pp. 217-235). New York: Halsted.
14. Bjork, R. A. (1978). The updating of human memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 235-259). New York: Academic.
15. Bliss, E. L. (1986). Multiple personality, allied disorders, and hypnosis. New York: Oxford University Press.
16. Blume, E. S. (1990). Secret survivors: Uncovering incest and its aftereffects on women. New York: Wiley.
17. Bohanek, J. G., Fivush, R., & Walker, E. (2005). Memories of positive and negative emotional events. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 51-66.
18. Boor, M. (1982). The multiple personality epidemic: Additional cases and inferences regarding diagnosis, etiology, dynamics, and treatment. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 170, 302-304.
19. Bremner, J. D. (2002). Does stress damage the brain? Understanding trauma-related disorders from a mind-body perspective. New York: Norton.
20. Breuer, J. & Freud, S. (1893-5/1953). Studies on hysteria (Vol. 2). London: Hogarth.
21. Brown, D., Scheflin, A. W., & Hammond, D. C. (1998). Memory, trauma treatment, and the law. New York: Norton.
22. Brown, D., Scheflin, A. W., & Whitfield, C. L. (1999). Recovered memories: The current weight of the evidence in science and in the courts. Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 27, 5-156.
23. Butler, S. (1880/1910). Unconscious memory. London: A. C. Fifield.
24. Byrne, C. A., Hyman, I. E., & Scott, K. L. (2001). Comparisons of memories for traumatic events and other experiences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, S119-S134.
25. Cahill, L. & McGaugh, J. L. (1996). Modulation of memory storage. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 6, 237-242.
26. Cahill, L. & McGaugh, J. L. (1998). Mechanisms of emotional arousal and lasting declarative memory. Trends in Neurosciences, 21, 294-299.
27. Cahill, L., Prins, B., Weber, M., & McGaugh, J. L. (1994). Beta-adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature, 371, 702-704.
28. Cheit, R. E. (1998). Consider this, skeptics of recovered memory. Ethics & Behavior, 8, 141-160.
29. Cheit, R. E. (1999). Junk skepticism and recovered memory: A reply to Piper. Ethics & Behavior, 9, 295-318.
30. Christianson, S.-Å. (1992). Handbook of emotion and memory: Research and theory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
31. Conway, M. A. (2001). Repression revisited. Nature, 410, 319-320.
32. Corwin, D. L. & Olafson, E. (1997). Videotapes discovery of a reportedly unrecallable memory of child sexual abuse: Comparison with a childhood interview videotapes 11 years before. Child Maltreatment, 2, 91-112.
33. Crews, F. (1995). The memory wars: Freud's legacy in dispute. New York: New York Review of Books.
34. Crews, F. (2004). The trauma trap. New York Review of Books, 51, 37-40.
35. Dawes, R. M. (1993). Prediction of the future versus an understanding of the past: A basic asymmetry. American Journal of Psychology, 106, 1-24.
36. Easterbrook, J. A. (1959). The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior. Psychological Review, 66, 183-201.
37. Eich, E., Macaulay, D., Lowewenstein, R. J., & Dihle, P. H. (1996). Memory, amnesia, and dissociative identity disorder. Psychological Science, 8, 417-422.
38. Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious: The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.
39. Erdelyi, M. H. (1990). Repression, reconstruction, and defense: History and integration of the psychoanalytic and experimental frameworks. In J. L. Singer (Ed.), Repression and dissociation: Implications for personality, psychopathology, and health (pp. 1-31). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
40. Erdelyi, M. H. & Goldberg, B. (1979). Let's not sweep repression under the rug: Toward a cognitive psychology of repression. In J. F. Kihlstrom & F. J. Evans (Eds.), Functional disorders of memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
41. Fisher, C. (1945). Amnesic states in war neuroses: The psychogenesis of fugues. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 14, 437-468.
42. Fredrickson, R. (1992). Repressed memories: A journey to recovery from sexual abuse. New York: Simon & Schuster.
43. Freud, S. (1891/1953). On aphasia: A critical study. London: International Universities Press.
44. Freud, S. (1896/1962). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 3, pp. 159-185). London: Hogarth.
45. Freud, S. (1914/1957). The history of the psychoanalytic movement. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, pp. 7-66). London: Hogarth.
46. Freud, S. (1915/1957). Repression. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, pp. 146-158). London: Hogarth.
47. Freyd, J. (1996). Betrayal trauma: The logic of forgetting childhood abuse. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
48. Freyd, J. J. & Gleaves, D. H. (1996). "Remembering" words not presented in lists: Relevance to the current recovered/false memory controversy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 22, 811-813.
49. Freyd, J. J., Putnam, F. W., Lyon, T. D., Becker-Blease, K. A., Cheit, R. E., Siegel, N. B., et al. (2005). The science of child sexual abuse. Science, 308, 501.
50. Ganaway, G. K. (1995). Hypnosis, childhood trauma, and dissociative identity disorder: Toward an integrative theory. International Journal of Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis, 43, 127-144.
51. Giglio, J. C. (1998). A comment on World War II repression. Professional Psychology: Research & practice, 29, 470.
52. Gleaves, D. H., Smith, S. M., Butler, L. D., & Spiegel, D. (2004). False and recovered memories in the laboratory and clinic: A review of experimental and clinical evidence. Clinical Psychology: Science & Practice, 11, 3-28.
53. Goodman, G. S., Ghetti, S., Quas, J. A., Edelstein, R. S., Alexander, K. W., Redlich, A. D., et al. (2003). A prospective study of memory for child sexual abuse: New findings relevant to the repressed-memory controversy. Psychological Science, 14, 113-118.
54. Grinker, R. R. & Spiegel, J. P. (1943/1945). Men under stress. New York: McGraw-Hill.
55. Harvey, M. R. & Herman, J. L. (1994). Amnesia, partial amnesia, and delayed recall among adult survivors of childhood trauma. Consciousness & Cognition, 3, 374-387.
56. Herbart, J. F. (1816/1881). A textbook in psychology: An attempt to found the science of psychology on experience, metaphysics, and mathematics. New York: Appleton.
57. Herman, J. L. (1981). Father-daughter incest. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
58. Herman, J. S. & Schatzow, E. (1987). Recovery and verification of memories of childhood sexual trauma. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 4, 1-14.
59. Hilgard, E. R. (1977). Divided consciousness: Multiple controls in human thought and action. New York: Wiley.
60. Holmes, D. S. (1974). Investigations of repression: Differential recall of material experimentally or naturally associated with ego threat. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 632-653.
61. Holmes, D. S. (1990). The evidence for repression: An examination of sixty years of research. In J. L. Singer (Ed.), Repression and dissociation: Implications for personality, psychopathology, and health (pp. 85-102). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
62. Jacobs, W. J., Laurance, H. E., Thomas, K. G. F., Luzcak, S. E., & Nadel, L. (1996). On the veracity and variability of traumatic memory. Traumatology, 2, Article 3.
63. James, W. (1890/1980). Principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
64. Janet, P. (1889). L'Automatisme psychologique; essai de psychologie expérimentale sur les formes inférieures de l'activité humaine [Psychological automatisms]. Paris: Alcan.
65. Janet, P. (1907). The major symptoms of hysteria. New York: Macmillan.
66. Kardiner, A. & Spiegel, H. (1941/1947). War stress and neurotic illness (2nd ed.). New York: Hoeber.
67. Karon, B. P. & Widener, A. J. (1997). Repressed memories and World War II: Lest we forget! Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 28, 338-340.
68. Karon, B. P. & Widener, A. J. (1998). Repressed memories: The real story. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 29, 482-487.
69. Kendall-Tackett, K. & Marshall, R. (1998). Sexual victimization of children: Incest and child sexual abuse. In R. K. Bergen (Ed.), Issues in intimate violence (pp. 47-63). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
70. Kendall-Tackett, K. A., Williams, L. M., & Finkelhor, D. (1993). Impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 164-180.
71. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1979). Hypnosis and psychopathology: Retrospect and prospect. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88, 459-473.
72. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1983). Instructed forgetting: Hypnotic and nonhypnotic. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 112, 73-79.
73. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1985). Posthypnotic amnesia and the dissociation of memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 19, pp. 131-178). New York: Academic.
74. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1992a). Dissociation and dissociations: A comment on consciousness and cognition. Consciousness & Cognition, 1, 47-53.
75. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1992b). Dissociative and conversion disorders. In D. J. Stein & J. Young (Eds.), Cognitive science and clinical disorders (pp. 247-270). San Diego: Academic.
76. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1994). One hundred years of hysteria. In S. J. Lynn & J. W. Rhue (Eds.), Dissociation: Clinical and theoretical perspectives (pp. 365-394). New York: Guilford Press.
77. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1996). The trauma-memory argument and recovered memory therapy. In K. Pezdek & W. P. Banks (Eds.), The recovered memory/false memory debate (pp. 297-311). San Diego: Academic.
78. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1997). Suffering from reminiscences: Exhumed memory, implicit memory, and the return of the repressed. In M. A. Conway (Ed.), Recovered memories and false memories (pp. 100-117). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
79. Kihlstrom, J. F. (1998). Exhumed memory. In S. J. Lynn & K. M. McConkey (Eds.), Truth in memory (pp. 3-31). New York: Guilford Press.
80. Kihlstrom, J. F. (2001). Dissociative disorders. In P. B. Sutker & H. E. Adams (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychopathology (3rd ed., pp. 259-276). New York: Plenum.
81. Kihlstrom, J. F. (2002). No need for repression. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 502.
82. Kihlstrom, J. F. (2004). An unbalanced balancing act: Blocked, recovered, and false memories in the laboratory and the clinic. Clinical Psychology: Science & Practice, 11, 34-41.
83. Kihlstrom, J. F. (2005). Consciousness in hypnosis. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Moscovich, & E. Thompson (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of consciousness (pp. in press). New York: Cambridge University Press.
84. Kihlstrom, J. F., Eich, E., Sandbrand, D., & Tobias, B. A. (2000). Emotion and memory: Implications for self-report. In A. A. Stone, J. S. Turkkan, C. A. Bachrach, J. B. Jobe, H. S. Kurtzman, & V. S. Cain (Eds.), The science of self-report: Implications for research and practice (pp. 81-99). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
85. Kihlstrom, J. F. & Evans, F. J. (1979a). Functional disorders of memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
86. Kihlstrom, J. F. & Evans, F. J. (1979b). Memory retrieval processes in posthypnotic amnesia. In J. F. Kihlstrom & F. J. Evans (Eds.), Functional disorders of memory (pp. 179-218). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
87. Kihlstrom, J. F. & McGlynn, S. M. (1991). Experimental research in clinical psychology. In M. Hersen, A. E. Kazdin, & A. S. Bellack (Eds.), Clinical psychology handbook (2nd ed., pp. 239-257). New York: Pergamon.
88. Kihlstrom, J. F. & Schacter, D. L. (2000). Functional amnesia. In F. Boller & J. Grafman (Eds.), Handbook of neuropsychology (2nd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 409-427). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
89. Kihlstrom, J. F., Tataryn, D. J., & Hoyt, I. P. (1993). Dissociative disorders. In P. J. Sutker & H. E. Adams (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 203-234). New York: Plenum.
90. Kopelman, M. D. (2002). Psychogenic amnesia. In A. D. Baddeley, M. D. Kopelman, & B. A. Wilson (Eds.), Handbook of memory disorders (2nd ed., pp. 451-471). Chichester: Wiley.
91. Lange, A., DeBeurs, E., Dolan, C., Lchnit, T., Sjollema, S., & Hanewald, G. (1999). Long-term effects of childhood sexual abuse: Objective and subjective characteristics of the abuse and psychopathology in later life. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 187, 150-158.
92. Levy, B. L. & Anderson, M. C. (2002). Inhibitory processes and the control of memory retrieval. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 299-305.
93. Lilienfeld, S. O. (1998). Repressed memories and World War II: Some cautionary notes. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 29, 471-475.
94. Loftus, E. F., Garry, M., & Feldman, J. (1994). Forgetting sexual trauma: What does it mean when 38% forget? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 62, 1177-1181.
95. Loftus, E. F. & Guyer, M. J. (2002a). Who abused Jane Doe? Part 1. Skeptical Inquirer, 26, 24-32.
96. Loftus, E. F. & Guyer, M. J. (2002b). Who abused Jane Doe? Part 2. Skeptical Inquirer, 26, 37-40.
97. Lyon, L. S. (1985). Facilitating telephone number recall in a case of psychogenic amnesia. Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 16, 147-149.
98. McGaugh, J. L. (2004). The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 1-28.
99. Mackinnon, D. W. & Dukes, W. F. (1964). Repression. In L. Postman (Ed.), Psychology in the making (pp. 662-744). New York: Knopf.
100. Macmillan, M. (1991/1997). Freud evaluated: The completed arc. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
101. McNally, R. J. (2003). Remembering trauma. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
102. Markowitsch, H. J. (1999). Functional neuroimaging correlates of functional amnesia. Memory, 7, 561-583.
103. Markowitsch, H. J. (2000). Functional amnesia: The mnestic block syndrome. Revue de Neuropsychologie, 10, 175-198.
104. Masson, J. M. (1984). The assault on truth: Freud's suppression of the seduction theory. New York: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux.
105. Metcalfe, J. & Jacobs, W. J. (1996). A "hot-system/cool-system" view of memory under stress. PTSD Research Quarterly, 7, 1-3.
106. Metcalfe, J. & Jacobs, W. J. (1998). Emotional memory: The effects of stress on "cool" and "hot" memory systems. In D. Medin (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in theory and research (Vol. 38, pp. 187-222). San Diego: Academic.
107. Metcalfe, J. & Jacobs, W. J. (2000). Can "hot" emotions be captured by "cool" mathematical models? In E. Tulving (Ed.), Memory, consciousness, and the brain: The Tallinn Conference (pp. 228-242). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
108. Mineka, S. & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1978). Unpredictable and uncontrollable events: A new perspective on experimental neurosis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 256-271.
109. Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. P., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 16, 519-533.
110. Nadel, L. & Jacobs, W. J. (1998). Traumatic memory is special. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 154-157.
111. O'Brien, J. T. (1997). The "glucocorticoid cascade" hypothesis in man: Prolonged stress may cause permanent brain damage. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 199-201.
112. Payne, J. D., Nadel, L., Britton, W. B., & Jacobs, W. J. (2004). The biopsychology of trauma and memory. In D. Reisberg & P. Hertel (Eds.), Memory and emotion (pp. 76-128). New York: Oxford University Press.
113. Peace, K. A. & Porter, S. (2004). A longitudinal investigation of the reliability of memories for trauma and other emotional experiences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 1143-1159.
114. Pendergrast, M. (1996). Victims of memory: Sex abuse accusations and shattered lives (2nd ed.). Hinesburg, VT: Upper Access.
115. Pendergrast, M. (1998). Response to Karon and Widener (1997). Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 29, 479-481.
116. Piper, A. (1998). Repressed memories from World War II: Nothing to forget. Examining Karon and Widener's (1997) claim to have discovered evidence for repression. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 29, 476-478.
117. Piper, A. (1999). A skeptic considers, then responds to Cheit. Ethics & Behavior, 9, 277-293.
118. Piper, A., Pope, H. G., & Borowiecki, B. S. (2000). Custer's last stand: Brown, Scheflin, and Whitfield's latest attempt to salvage "dissociative amnesia." Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 28, 149-213.
119. Pope, H. G. & Hudson, J. I. (1995a). Can individuals "repress" memories of childhood sexual abuse? An examination of the evidence. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 715-719.
120. Pope, H. G. & Hudson, J. I. (1995b). Does childhood sexual abuse cause adult psychiatric disorders? Essentials of methodology. Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 23, 363-381.
121. Pope, H. G., Jr., Hudson, J. I., Bodkin, J. A., & Oliva, P. (1998). Questionable validity of "dissociative amnesia" in trauma victims: Evidence from prospective studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 210-215.
122. Pope, H. G., Oliva, P. S., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Repressed memories: B. Scientific status. In D. L. Faigman, D. H. Kaye, M. J. Saks, & J. Sanders (Eds.), Modern scientific evidence: The law and science of expert testimony (Vol. 1, 2000 Pocket Part, pp. 154-195). St. Paul, MN: West.
123. Porter, S. & Birt, A. R. (2001). Is traumatic memory special? A comparison of traumatic memory characteristics with memory for other emotional life experiences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, S101-S118.
124. Rapaport, D. (1942). Emotions and memory. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
125. Rind, B. (1998). A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 22-53.
126. Rind, B. (2003). An elaboration on causation and positive cases in child sexual abuse. Clinical Psychology: Science & Practice, 10, 352-357.
127. Ross, C. A. (1986). Multiple personality disorder: Diagnosis, clinical features, and treatment. New York: Wiley.
128. Ryle, G. (1949). The concept of mind. London: Hutchinson.
129. Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Why stress is bad for your brain. Science, 273, 749-750.
130. Sbraga, T. P. & O'Donohue, W. (2003). Post-hoc reasoning in possible cases of child sexual abuse: Symptoms of inconclusive origins. Clinical Psychology: Science & Practice, 10, 320-334.
131. Scarf, M. (2004). Secrets, lies, betrayals: The body/mind connection. New York: Random House.
132. Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 501-518.
133. Schacter, D. L. (2001). Suppression of unwanted memories: Repression revisited? Lancet, 357, 1724-1725.
134. Scheflin, A. W. & Brown, D. (1996). Repressed memory or dissociative amnesia: What the science says. Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 24, 143-188.
135. Schooler, J. W. (2001). Discovering memories of abuse in the light of meta-awareness. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 4, 105-136.
136. Schreiber, F. R. (1973). Sybil: The true story of a woman possessed by 16 separate personalities. Chicago: Regnery.
137. Sears, R. R. (1936). Functional abnormalities of memory with special reference to amnesia. Psychological Bulletin, 33, 229-274.
138. Shobe, K. K. & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1997). Is traumatic memory special? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 70-74.
139. Singer, J. L. (Ed.). (1990). Repression and dissociation: Implications for personality theory, psychopathology, and health. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
140. Sivers, H., Schooler, J., & Freyd, J. J. (2002). Recovered memories. In V. S. Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the human brain (Vol. 4, pp. 169-184). San Diego: Elsevier.
141. Swets, J. A., Dawes, R. M., & Monahan, J. (2000). Psychological science can improve diagnostic decisions. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1, 1-26.
142. Taylor, E. (1999). William James and Sigmund Freud: "The future of psychology belongs to your work." Psychological Science, 10, 465-469.
143. Thigpen, C. H. & Cleckley, H. (1954). A case of multiple personality. Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 49, 135-151.
144. Thigpen, C. H. & Cleckley, H. (1957). The three faces of Eve (Vol. 49). New York: Popular Library.
145. Thigpen, C. H. & Cleckley, H. (1984). On the incidence of multiple personality disorder. International Journal of Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis, 32, 63-66.
146. Thomas, K. G. F., Laurance, H. E., Jacobs, W. J., & Nadel, L. (1995). Traumatic memory and its recovery: Formulating hypotheses and critical experiments. Traumatology, 1, Article 3.
147. Tulving, E. & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 359-380.
148. van der Kolk, B. A. (1994). The body keeps the score: Memory and the evolving psychobiology of posttraumatic stress. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 1, 253-265.
149. van der Kolk, B. A. & Fisler, R. E. (1993). The biologic basis of posttraumatic stress. Family Violence & Abusive Relationships, 20, 417-432.
150. van der Kolk, B. A. & Fisler, R. (1995). Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 505-525.
151. Walker, L. E. (1994). Abused women and survivor therapy: A practical guide for the psychotherapist. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
152. Wegner, D. M. (1989). White bears and other unwanted thoughts: Suppression, obsession, and the psychology of mental control. New York: Penguin.
153. Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 5-13.
154. Widom, C. S. & Morris, S. (1997). Accuracy of adult recollections of childhood victimization. Part 2: Childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Assessment, 9, 34-46.
155. Williams, L. M. (1994). Recall of childhood trauma: A prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 62, 1167-1178.
156. Yerkes, R. M. & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative & Neurological Psychology, 18, 459-482.
157. Zeller, A. (1950). An experimental analogue of repression: I. Historical summary. Psychological Bulletin, 47, 39-51.