Evaluation and management of hamstring injuries

American Journal of Sports Medicine

Volumn 41, Issue 12, 2013, Pages 2933-2947

  Ahmad, Christopher S ^a   Redler, Lauren H ^a   Ciccotti, Michael G ^b   Maffulli, Nicola ^c   Longo, Umile Giuseppe ^d   Bradley, James ^e  

^a Columbia University ^*  (United States)

^b THOMAS JEFFERSON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY CAMPUS BIO MEDICO   (Italy)

^e UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

Author keywords

biceps femoris; cell therapy; distal hamstring resection; hamstring; hamstring injury prevention; platelet rich plasma; proximal hamstring repair; semimembranosus; semitendinosus

Indexed keywords

ADULT; BICEPS FEMORIS; CELL THERAPY; DISTAL HAMSTRING RESECTION; FEMALE; HAMSTRING; HAMSTRING INJURY PREVENTION; HUMAN; INJURY; LEG INJURY; MALE; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PROXIMAL HAMSTRING REPAIR; REVIEW; SEMIMEMBRANOSUS MUSCLE; SEMITENDINOUS MUSCLE; SKELETAL MUSCLE; SPORT INJURY; TENDON INJURY; THROMBOCYTE RICH PLASMA; YOUNG ADULT;

BICEPS FEMORIS; CELL THERAPY; DISTAL HAMSTRING RESECTION; HAMSTRING; HAMSTRING INJURY PREVENTION; PLATELET-RICH PLASMA; PROXIMAL HAMSTRING REPAIR; SEMIMEMBRANOSUS; SEMITENDINOSUS;

ADULT; ATHLETIC INJURIES; FEMALE; HUMANS; LEG INJURIES; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MALE; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; SPRAINS AND STRAINS; TENDON INJURIES; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84889070636     PISSN: 03635465     EISSN: 15523365     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0363546513487063     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Adams RD, Walton JN. The response of the normal, the denervated and the dystrophic muscle-cell to injury. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1956 ; 72 (1). 273-298
2. Agre JC. Hamstring injuries: proposed aetiological factors, prevention, and treatment. Sports Med. 1985 ; 2 (1). 21-33 (Pubitemid 15165671)
3. Ali K, Leland JM. Hamstring strains and tears in the athlete. Clin Sports Med. 2012 ; 31 (2). 263-272
4. Alioto RJ, Browne JE, Barnthouse CD, Scott AR. Complete rupture of the distal semimembranosus complex in a professional athlete. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1997 ; 336: 162-165 (Pubitemid 27106354)
5. Alsousou J, Thompson M, Hulley P, Noble A, Willett K. The biology of platelet-rich plasma and its application in trauma and orthopaedic surgery: a review of the literature. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2009 ; 91 (8). 987-996
6. Andia I, Sanchez M, Maffulli N. Platelet rich plasma therapies for sports muscle injuries: any evidence behind clinical practice?. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2011 ; 11 (4). 509-518
7. Arnason A, Andersen TE, Holme I, Engebretsen L, Bahr R. Prevention of hamstring strains in elite soccer: an intervention study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2008 ; 18 (1). 40-48
8. Arnason A, Sigurdsson SB, Gudmundsson A, Holme I, Engebretsen L, Bahr R. Risk factors for injuries in football. Am J Sports Med. 2004 ; 32: 5S - 16S (Pubitemid 38145559)
9. Askling C, Karlsson J, Thorstensson A. Hamstring injury occurrence in elite soccer players after preseason strength training with eccentric overload. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2003 ; 13 (4). 244-250 (Pubitemid 37463796)
10. Askling CM, Tengvar M, Saartok T, Thorstensson A. Acute first-time hamstring strains during slow-speed stretching: clinical, magnetic resonance imaging, and recovery characteristics. Am J Sports Med. 2007 ; 35 (10). 1716-1724 (Pubitemid 47476058)
11. Bachrach E, Perez AL, Choi YH, et al. Muscle engraftment of myogenic progenitor cells following intraarterial transplantation. Muscle Nerve. 2006 ; 34 (1). 44-52
12. Bedair HS, Karthikeyan T, Quintero A, Li Y, Huard J. Angiotensin II receptor blockade administered after injury improves muscle regeneration and decreases fibrosis in normal skeletal muscle. Am J Sports Med. 2008 ; 36 (8). 1548-1554 (Pubitemid 352019474)
13. Bennell K, Wajswelner H, Lew P, et al. Isokinetic strength testing does not predict hamstring injury in Australian rules footballers. Br J Sports Med. 1998 ; 32 (4). 309-314 (Pubitemid 28534877)
14. Bintliff S, Walker BE. Radioautographic study of skeletal muscle regeneration. Am J Anat. 1960 ; 106 (3). 233-245
15. Birmingham P, Muller M, Wickiewicz T, Cavanaugh J, Rodeo S, Warren R. Functional outcome after repair of proximal hamstring avulsions. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2011 ; 93 (19). 1819-1826
16. Blasier RB, Morawa LG. Complete rupture of the hamstring origin from a water skiing injury. Am J Sports Med. 1990 ; 18 (4). 435-437 (Pubitemid 20229913)
17. Bradley PS, Portas MD. The relationship between preseason range of motion and muscle strain injury in elite soccer players. J Strength Cond Res. 2007 ; 21 (4). 1155-1159
18. Bresler M, Mar W, Toman J. Diagnostic imaging in the evaluation of leg pain in athletes. Clin Sports Med. 2012 ; 31 (2). 217-245
19. Brewer BJ. Mechanism of injury to the musculotendinous unit. Instr Course Lect. 1960 ; 17: 354-358
20. Brockett CL, Morgan DL, Proske U. Human hamstring muscles adapt to eccentric exercise by changing optimum length. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001 ; 33 (5). 783-790 (Pubitemid 32336640)
21. Brooks JH, Fuller CW, Kemp SP, Reddin DB. Incidence, risk, and prevention of hamstring muscle injuries in professional rugby union. Am J Sports Med. 2006 ; 34 (8). 1297-1306 (Pubitemid 44050216)
22. Brubaker CE, James SL. Injuries to runners. J Sports Med. 1974 ; 2 (4). 189-198
23. Brucker PU, Imhoff AB. Functional assessment after acute and chronic complete ruptures of the proximal hamstring tendons. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2005 ; 13 (5). 411-418 (Pubitemid 40991804)
24. Burkett LN. Causative factors in hamstring strains. Med Sci Sports. 1970 ; 2 (1). 39-42
25. Burkett LN. Investigation into hamstring strains: the case of the hybrid muscle. J Sports Med. 1975 ; 3 (5). 228-231
26. Cacchio A, Borra F, Severini G, et al. Reliability and validity of three pain provocation tests used for the diagnosis of chronic proximal hamstring tendinopathy. Br J Sports Med. 2012 ; 46 (12). 883-887
27. Cacchio A, Rompe JD, Furia JP, Susi P, Santilli V, De Paulis F. Shockwave therapy for the treatment of chronic proximal hamstring tendinopathy in professional athletes. Am J Sports Med. 2011 ; 39 (1). 146-153
28. Cao B, Zheng B, Jankowski RJ, et al. Muscle stem cells differentiate into haematopoietic lineages but retain myogenic potential. Nat Cell Biol. 2003 ; 5 (7). 640-646 (Pubitemid 36818086)
29. Chakravarthy J, Ramisetty N, Pimpalnerkar A, Mohtadi N. Surgical repair of complete proximal hamstring tendon ruptures in water skiers and bull riders: a report of four cases and review of the literature. Br J Sports Med. 2005 ; 39 (8). 569-572 (Pubitemid 41081342)
30. Chan O, Del Buono A, Best TM, Maffulli N. Acute muscle strain injuries: a proposed new classification system. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2012 ; 20 (11). 2356-2362
31. Chumanov ES, Heiderscheit BC, Thelen DG. The effect of speed and influence of individual muscles on hamstring mechanics during the swing phase of sprinting. J Biomech. 2007 ; 40 (16). 3555-3562 (Pubitemid 350122499)
32. Clanton TO, Coupe KJ. Hamstring strains in athletes: diagnosis and treatment. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 1998 ; 6 (4). 237-248
33. Clark WE. An experimental study of the regeneration of mammalian striped muscle. J Anat. 1946 ; 80: 24-36
34. Cohen S, Bradley J. Acute proximal hamstring rupture. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2007 ; 15 (6). 350-355
35. Cohen SB, Rangavajjula A, Vyas D, Bradley JP. Functional results and outcomes after repair of proximal hamstring avulsions. Am J Sports Med. 2012 ; 40 (9). 2092-2098
36. Cohen SB, Towers JD, Zoga A, et al. Hamstring injuries in professional football players: magnetic resonance imaging correlation with return to play. Sports Health. 2011 ; 3 (5). 423-430
37. Connell DA, Schneider-Kolsky ME, Hoving JL, et al. Longitudinal study comparing sonographic and MRI assessments of acute and healing hamstring injuries. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004 ; 183 (4). 975-984 (Pubitemid 44185081)
38. Cooper DE, Conway JE. Distal semitendinosus ruptures in elite-level athletes: low success rates of nonoperative treatment. Am J Sports Med. 2010 ; 38 (6). 1174-1178
39. Cowin AJ, Holmes TM, Brosnan P, Ferguson MW. Expression of TGF-beta and its receptors in murine fetal and adult dermal wounds. Eur J Dermatol. 2001 ; 11 (5). 424-431 (Pubitemid 32801338)
40. Croisier JL. Factors associated with recurrent hamstring injuries. Sports Med. 2004 ; 34 (10). 681-695
41. Croisier JL, Forthomme B, Namurois MH, Vanderthommen M, Crielaard JM. Hamstring muscle strain recurrence and strength performance disorders. Am J Sports Med. 2002 ; 30 (2). 199-203 (Pubitemid 34241259)
42. Croisier JL, Ganteaume S, Binet J, Genty M, Ferret JM. Strength imbalances and prevention of hamstring injury in professional soccer players: a prospective study. Am J Sports Med. 2008 ; 36 (8). 1469-1475 (Pubitemid 352019482)
43. Cross MJ, Vandersluis R, Wood D, Banff M. Surgical repair of chronic complete hamstring tendon rupture in the adult patient. Am J Sports Med. 1998 ; 26 (6). 785-788 (Pubitemid 28555151)
44. David A, Buchholz J, Muhr G. Tear of the biceps femoris tendon. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 1994 ; 113 (6). 351-352 (Pubitemid 24317930)
45. De Smet AA, Best TM. MR imaging of the distribution and location of acute hamstring injuries in athletes. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2000 ; 174 (2). 393-399 (Pubitemid 30067144)
46. Ekstrand J, Gillquist J, Moller M, Oberg B, Liljedahl SO. Incidence of soccer injuries and their relation to training and team success. Am J Sports Med. 1983 ; 11 (2). 63-67 (Pubitemid 13128291)
47. Ekstrand J, Hagglund M, Walden M. Injury incidence and injury patterns in professional football: the UEFA injury study. Br J Sports Med. 2011 ; 45 (7). 553-558
48. Elliott MC, Zarins B, Powell JW, Kenyon CD. Hamstring muscle strains in professional football players: a 10-year review. Am J Sports Med. 2011 ; 39 (4). 843-850
49. Engebretsen AH, Myklebust G, Holme I, Engebretsen L, Bahr R. Intrinsic risk factors for hamstring injuries among male soccer players: a prospective cohort study. Am J Sports Med. 2010 ; 38 (6). 1147-1153
50. Folsom GJ, Larson CM. Surgical treatment of acute versus chronic complete proximal hamstring ruptures: results of a new allograft technique for chronic reconstructions. Am J Sports Med. 2008 ; 36 (1). 104-109 (Pubitemid 351927838)
51. Foreman TK, Addy T, Baker S, Burns J, Hill N, Madden T. Prospective studies into the causation of hamstring injuries in sport: a systematic review. Phys Ther Sport. 2006 ; 7: 101-109 (Pubitemid 43785800)
52. Fortems Y, Victor J, Dauwe D, Fabry G. Isolated complete rupture of biceps femoris tendon. Injury. 1995 ; 26 (4). 275-276
53. Frizziero A, Giannotti E, Oliva F, Masiero S, Maffulli N. Autologous conditioned serum for the treatment of osteoarthritis and other possible applications in musculoskeletal disorders. Br Med Bull. :
54. Gabbe BJ, Bennell KL, Finch CF. Why are older Australian football players at greater risk of hamstring injury?. J Sci Med Sport. 2006 ; 9 (4). 327-333 (Pubitemid 44097011)
55. Gabbe BJ, Bennell KL, Finch CF, Wajswelner H, Orchard JW. Predictors of hamstring injury at the elite level of Australian football. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2006 ; 16 (1). 7-13 (Pubitemid 43433299)
56. Gabbe BJ, Finch CF, Bennell KL, Wajswelner H. Risk factors for hamstring injuries in community level Australian football. Br J Sports Med. 2005 ; 39 (2). 106-110 (Pubitemid 40179550)
57. Garrett WE. Muscle strain injuries. Am J Sports Med. 1996 ; 24: S2 - S8
58. Garrett WE, Rich FR, Nikolaou PK, Vogler JB. Computed tomography of hamstring muscle strains. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989 ; 21 (5). 506-514 (Pubitemid 19260156)
59. Hamilton B, Knez W, Eirale C, Chalabi H. Platelet enriched plasma for acute muscle injury. Acta Orthop Belg. 2010 ; 76 (4). 443-448
60. Harris JD, Griesser MJ, Best TM, Ellis TJ. Treatment of proximal hamstring ruptures: a systematic review. Int J Sports Med. 2011 ; 32 (7). 490-495
61. Heiderscheit BC, Hoerth DM, Chumanov ES, Swanson SC, Thelen BJ, Thelen DG. Identifying the time of occurrence of a hamstring strain injury during treadmill running: a case study. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2005 ; 20 (10). 1072-1078 (Pubitemid 41585033)
62. Heiser TM, Weber J, Sullivan G, Clare P, Jacobs RR. Prophylaxis and management of hamstring muscle injuries in intercollegiate football players. Am J Sports Med. 1984 ; 12 (5). 368-370 (Pubitemid 14023761)
63. Henderson G, Barnes CA, Portas MD. Factors associated with increased propensity for hamstring injury in English Premier League soccer players. J Sci Med Sport. 2010 ; 13 (4). 397-402
64. Hoskins W, Pollard H. The management of hamstring injury, part 1: issues in diagnosis. Man Ther. 2005 ; 10 (2). 96-107 (Pubitemid 40731546)
65. Husmann I, Soulet L, Gautron J, Martelly I, Barritault D. Growth factors in skeletal muscle regeneration. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 1996 ; 7 (3). 249-258 (Pubitemid 27200309)
66. Ishikawa K, Kai K, Mizuta H. Avulsion of the hamstring muscles from the ischial tuberosity: a report of two cases. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1988 ; 232: 153-155
67. Jackson WM, Nesti LJ, Tuan RS. Potential therapeutic applications of muscle-derived mesenchymal stem and progenitor cells. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2010 ; 10 (4). 505-517
68. Jarvinen M. Healing of a crush injury in rat striated muscle, 3: a micro-angiographical study of the effect of early mobilization and immobilization on capillary ingrowth. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand A. 1976 ; 84 (1). 85-94
69. Kaminski TW, Wabbersen CV, Murphy RM. Concentric versus enhanced eccentric hamstring strength training: clinical implications. J Athl Train. 1998 ; 33 (3). 216-221 (Pubitemid 128564463)
70. Klingele KE, Sallay PI. Surgical repair of complete proximal hamstring tendon rupture. Am J Sports Med. 2002 ; 30 (5). 742-747
71. Knapik JJ, Jones BH, Bauman CL, Harris JM. Strength, flexibility and athletic injuries. Sports Med. 1992 ; 14 (5). 277-288
72. Kusma M, Seil R, Kohn D. Isolated avulsion of the biceps femoris insertion-injury patterns and treatment options: a case report and literature review. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2007 ; 127 (9). 777-780 (Pubitemid 47566529)
73. Kuszewski M, Gnat R, Saulicz E. Stability training of the lumbo-pelvo-hip complex influence stiffness of the hamstrings: a preliminary study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2009 ; 19 (2). 260-266
74. Lephart SM, Abt JP, Ferris CM, et al. Neuromuscular and biomechanical characteristic changes in high school athletes: a plyometric versus basic resistance program. Br J Sports Med. 2005 ; 39 (12). 932-938 (Pubitemid 41736357)
75. Levine WN, Bergfeld JA, Tessendorf W, Moorman CT. Intramuscular corticosteroid injection for hamstring injuries: a 13-year experience in the National Football League. Am J Sports Med. 2000 ; 28 (3). 297-300 (Pubitemid 30394749)
76. Li Y, Foster W, Deasy BM, et al. Transforming growth factor-beta1 induces the differentiation of myogenic cells into fibrotic cells in injured skeletal muscle: a key event in muscle fibrogenesis. Am J Pathol. 2004 ; 164 (3). 1007-1019 (Pubitemid 38235482)
77. Liemohn W. Factors related to hamstring strains. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1978 ; 18 (1). 71-76 (Pubitemid 8346919)
78. Lim BO, Lee YS, Kim JG, An KO, Yoo J, Kwon YH. Effects of sports injury prevention training on the biomechanical risk factors of anterior cruciate ligament injury in high school female basketball players. Am J Sports Med. 2009 ; 37 (9). 1728-1734
79. Longo UG, Garau G, Denaro V, Maffulli N. Surgical management of tendinopathy of biceps femoris tendon in athletes. Disabil Rehabil. 2008 ; 30 (20-22). 1602-1607
80. Longo UG, Loppini M, Berton A, Marinozzi A, Maffulli N, Denaro V. The FIFA 11+ program is effective in preventing injuries in elite male basketball players: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med. 2012 ; 40 (5). 996-1005
81. Longo UG, Loppini M, Berton A, Spiezia F, Maffulli N, Denaro V. Tissue engineered strategies for skeletal muscle injury. Stem Cells International. 2012 ; 2012: 13
82. Lu L, Saulis AS, Liu WR, et al. The temporal effects of anti-TGF-beta1, 2, and 3 monoclonal antibody on wound healing and hypertrophic scar formation. J Am Coll Surg. 2005 ; 201 (3). 391-397 (Pubitemid 41206777)
83. Maffulli N, Longo UG, Gougoulias N, Caine D, Denaro V. Sport injuries: a review of outcomes. Br Med Bull. 2011 ; 97: 47-80
84. Maffulli N, Longo UG, Gougoulias N, Loppini M, Denaro V. Long-term health outcomes of youth sports injuries. Br J Sports Med. 2010 ; 44 (1). 21-25
85. Maffulli N, Longo UG, Spiezia F, Denaro V. Aetiology and prevention of injuries in elite young athletes. Med Sport Sci. 2011 ; 56: 187-200
86. Maffulli N, Longo UG, Spiezia F, Denaro V. Sports injuries in young athletes: long-term outcome and prevention strategies. Phys Sportsmed. 2010 ; 38 (2). 29-34
87. Mair SD, Seaber AV, Glisson RR, Garrett WE. The role of fatigue in susceptibility to acute muscle strain injury. Am J Sports Med. 1996 ; 24 (2). 137-143 (Pubitemid 26091193)
88. Mann G, Shabat S, Friedman A, et al. Hamstring injuries. Orthopedics. 2007 ; 30 (7). 536 541-540 532
89. Mariani C, Caldera FE, Kim W. Ultrasound versus magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of an acute hamstring tear. PM R. 2012 ; 4 (2). 154-155
90. Mason DL, Dickens V, Vail A. Rehabilitation for hamstring injuries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 ; (1). CD004575
91. McGoldrick F, Colville J. Spontaneous rupture of the biceps femoris. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 1990 ; 109 (4). 234 (Pubitemid 20221956)
92. McGregor C, Ghosh S, Young DA, Maffulli N. Traumatic and overuse injuries of the ischial origin of the hamstrings. Disabil Rehabil. 2008 ; 30 (20-22). 1597-1601
93. Mejia HA, Bradley JP. The effects of platelet-rich plasma on muscle: basic science and clinical application. Oper Tech Sports Med. 2011 ; 19: 149-153
94. Mendiguchia J, Alentorn-Geli E, Brughelli M. Hamstring strain injuries: are we heading in the right direction?. Br J Sports Med. 2012 ; 46 (2). 81-85
95. Mendiguchia J, Brughelli M. A return-to-sport algorithm for acute hamstring injuries. Phys Ther Sport. 2011 ; 12 (1). 2-14
96. Miller SL, Gill J, Webb GR. The proximal origin of the hamstrings and surrounding anatomy encountered during repair: a cadaveric study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007 ; 89 (1). 44-48 (Pubitemid 46059144)
97. Mjolsnes R, Arnason A, Osthagen T, Raastad T, Bahr R. A. 10-week randomized trial comparing eccentric vs. concentric hamstring strength training in well-trained soccer players. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2004 ; 14 (5). 311-317 (Pubitemid 39360656)
98. Nichols AW. Complications associated with the use of corticosteroids in the treatment of athletic injuries. Clin J Sport Med. 2005 ; 15 (5). 370-375 (Pubitemid 41376962)
99. Orchard J, Marsden J, Lord S, Garlick D. Preseason hamstring muscle weakness associated with hamstring muscle injury in Australian footballers. Am J Sports Med. 1997 ; 25 (1). 81-85 (Pubitemid 27045340)
100. Orchard J, Steet E, Walker C, Ibrahim A, Rigney L, Houang M. Hamstring muscle strain injury caused by isokinetic testing. Clin J Sport Med. 2001 ; 11 (4). 274-276 (Pubitemid 33054824)
101. Orchard JW. Intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors for muscle strains in Australian football. Am J Sports Med. 2001 ; 29 (3). 300-303 (Pubitemid 32488409)
102. Puranen J, Orava S. The hamstring syndrome: a new diagnosis of gluteal sciatic pain. Am J Sports Med. 1988 ; 16 (5). 517-521
103. Rossi CA, Pozzobon M, De Coppi P. Advances in musculoskeletal tissue engineering: moving towards therapy. Organogenesis. 2010 ; 6 (3). 167-172
104. Safran MR, Seaber AV, Garrett WE. Warm-up and muscular injury prevention: an update. Sports Med. 1989 ; 8 (4). 239-249 (Pubitemid 19249870)
105. Sallay PI, Ballard G, Hamersly S, Schrader M. Subjective and functional outcomes following surgical repair of complete ruptures of the proximal hamstring complex. Orthopedics. 2008 1092 ; 31 ( 11 ):
106. Sallay PI, Friedman RL, Coogan PG, Garrett WE. Hamstring muscle injuries among water skiers: functional outcome and prevention. Am J Sports Med. 1996 ; 24 (2). 130-136
107. Sarimo J, Lempainen L, Mattila K, Orava S. Complete proximal hamstring avulsions: a series of 41 patients with operative treatment. Am J Sports Med. 2008 ; 36 (6). 1110-1115 (Pubitemid 351713046)
108. Schache AG, Wrigley TV, Baker R, Pandy MG. Biomechanical response to hamstring muscle strain injury. Gait Posture. 2009 ; 29 (2). 332-338
109. Schilders E, Bismil Q, Sidhom S, Robinson P, Barwick T, Talbot C. Partial rupture of the distal semitendinosus tendon treated by tenotomy: a previously undescribed entity. Knee. 2006 ; 13 (1). 45-47 (Pubitemid 41827758)
110. Sekhon JS, Anderson K. Rupture of the distal semitendinosus tendon: a report of two cases in professional athletes. J Knee Surg. 2007 ; 20 (2). 147-150
111. Shelly MJ, Hodnett PA, MacMahon PJ, Moynagh MR, Kavanagh EC, Eustace SJ. MR imaging of muscle injury. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 2009 ; 17 (4). 757 vii - 773
112. Sherry MA, Best TM. A comparison of 2 rehabilitation programs in the treatment of acute hamstring strains. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2004 ; 34 (3). 116-125 (Pubitemid 38392029)
113. Slavotinek JP, Verrall GM, Fon GT. Hamstring injury in athletes: using MR imaging measurements to compare extent of muscle injury with amount of time lost from competition. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002 ; 179 (6). 1621-1628 (Pubitemid 35386670)
114. Soligard T, Myklebust G, Steffen K, et al. Comprehensive warm-up programme to prevent injuries in young female footballers: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2008 ; 337: a2469
115. Standaert CJ. Shockwave therapy for chronic proximal hamstring tendinopathy. Clin J Sport Med. 2012 ; 22 (2). 170-171
116. Stauber WT Sports-Induced Inflammation: Clinical and Basic Science Concepts. Leadbetter WB Buckwalter JA Gordon SL, ed. Park Ridge, Illinois: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons ; 205-213.
117. Steffen K, Myklebust G, Olsen OE, Holme I, Bahr R. Preventing injuries in female youth football: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2008 ; 18 (5). 605-614
118. Sugiura Y, Saito T, Sakuraba K, Sakuma K, Suzuki E. Strength deficits identified with concentric action of the hip extensors and eccentric action of the hamstrings predispose to hamstring injury in elite sprinters. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2008 ; 38 (8). 457-464
119. Tegnander A, Olsen OE, Moholdt TT, Engebretsen L, Bahr R. Injuries in Norwegian female elite soccer: a prospective one-season cohort study. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2008 ; 16 (2). 194-198
120. Terry GC, LaPrade RF. The biceps femoris muscle complex at the knee: its anatomy and injury patterns associated with acute anterolateral-anteromedial rotatory instability. Am J Sports Med. 1996 ; 24 (1). 2-8 (Pubitemid 26036320)
121. Torrente Y, Tremblay JP, Pisati F, et al. Intraarterial injection of muscle-derived CD34(+)Sca-1(+) stem cells restores dystrophin in mdx mice. J Cell Biol. 2001 ; 152 (2). 335-348 (Pubitemid 34285603)
122. Verrall GM, Slavotinek JP, Barnes PG, Fon GT. Diagnostic and prognostic value of clinical findings in 83 athletes with posterior thigh injury: comparison of clinical findings with magnetic resonance imaging documentation of hamstring muscle strain. Am J Sports Med. 2003 ; 31 (6). 969-973 (Pubitemid 37448829)
123. Verrall GM, Slavotinek JP, Barnes PG, Fon GT, Spriggins AJ. Clinical risk factors for hamstring muscle strain injury: a prospective study with correlation of injury by magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Sports Med. 2001 ; 35 (6). 435 440-439
124. Warren LF, Marshall JL. The supporting structures and layers on the medial side of the knee: an anatomical analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1979 ; 61 (1). 56-62 (Pubitemid 9142655)
125. Wetzel RJ, Patel RM, Terry MA. Platelet-rich plasma as an effective treatment for proximal hamstring injuries. Orthopedics. 2013 ; 36 (1). e64 - e70
126. Witvrouw E, Danneels L, Asselman P, D'Have T, Cambier D. Muscle flexibility as a risk factor for developing muscle injuries in male professional soccer players: a prospective study. Am J Sports Med. 2003 ; 31 (1). 41-46 (Pubitemid 36110130)
127. Wood DG, Packham I, Trikha SP, Linklater J. Avulsion of the proximal hamstring origin. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008 ; 90 (11). 2365-2374
128. Woods C, Hawkins RD, Maltby S, et al. The Football Association Medical Research Programme. An audit of injuries in professional football: analysis of hamstring injuries. Br J Sports Med. 2004 ; 38 (1). 36-41 (Pubitemid 38183599)
129. Worrell TW. Factors associated with hamstring injuries: an approach to treatment and preventative measures. Sports Med. 1994 ; 17 (5). 338-345 (Pubitemid 24158883)
130. Worrell TW, Perrin DH, Gansneder BM, Gieck JH. Comparison of isokinetic strength and flexibility measures between hamstring injured and noninjured athletes. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1991 ; 13 (3). 118-125
131. Yeung SS, Suen AM, Yeung EW. A prospective cohort study of hamstring injuries in competitive sprinters: preseason muscle imbalance as a possible risk factor. Br J Sports Med. 2009 ; 43 (8). 589-594
132. Zarins B, Ciullo JV. Acute muscle and tendon injuries in athletes. Clin Sports Med. 1983 ; 2 (1). 167-182
133. Zissen MH, Wallace G, Stevens KJ, Fredericson M, Beaulieu CF. High hamstring tendinopathy: MRI and ultrasound imaging and therapeutic efficacy of percutaneous corticosteroid injection. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2010 ; 195 (4). 993-998