Understanding Electric Power Systems: An Overview of Technology, the Marketplace, and Government Regulation

Understanding Electric Power Systems: An Overview of Technology, the Marketplace, and Government Regulation

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 1-320

  Casazza, Jack ^a   Delea, Frank ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84888717836     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470588475     Document Type: Book

References (182)

1. Homer M. Rustebakke, 1983, Electric Utility Systems and Practices, 4th ed., Wiley.
2. One hertz is equal to one cycle per second.
3. Energy Information Agency (EIA), Annual Energy Outlook, 2009.
4. The vast majority of the approximately 65 units larger than 1000 mW are nuclear units constructed in the 1970s and 1980s. Since then, the largest of the new capacity additions have been significantly smaller. For example, the Energy Information Agency's list of new capacity for the period September 2007-August 2008 indicates the largest unit was 558 mW.
5. Work on UHV (voltages 1000 kV or higher) is underway in China, India, and Brazil. The State Grid Corporation of China is working on a 1000 kV UHV transmission project connecting North and Central China.
6. J. A. Casazza, 1993, The Development of Electric Power Transmission-The Role Played by Technology, Institutions, and People, IEEE Case Histories of Achievement in Science and Technology, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers.
7. Chapter 19 for a discussion of EPRI, the industry's research organization.
8. J. A. Casazza, 1993, The Development of Electric Power Transmission-The Role Played by Technology, Institutions, and People, IEEE Case Histories of Achievement in Science and Technology, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers.
9. Federal Power Commission, Prevention of Power Failures, Volume I, Report to the Commission, Washington, D.C., July 1967.
10. FERC, The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, is the successor to the Federal Power Commission (FPC). See Chapter 14 for a discussion of FERC.
11. After its formation in 1977. See Chapter 14 for a discussion of the DOE.
12. Chapter 10 for a discussion of NERC.
13. In the early 2000s, concerns about perceived global warming and the effect of carbon-based fuels are driving measures to reduce carbon emissions.
14. discussion in Chapter 6 of new nuclear technologies. 20"President Obama's proposed budget all but kills the Yucca Mountain project, the controversial Nevada site where the U.S. nuclear industry's spent fuel rods were to spend eternity. There are no other plans in the works, so for now the waste will remain next to Zion and 103 other reactors scattered across the country." See Los Angeles Times, March 11, 2009 article by Michael Hawthorne.
15. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalwarming.html#q3.
16. Chapter 5 for a discussion of this issue.
17. PUHCA was repealed by the Energy Policy Act of 2005, discussed in Chapter 13.
18. In the first edition of this text, additional information was provided in more detail on ownership interests. Unfortunately, the Energy Information Agency no longer publishes reports with the additional detail.
19. Chapter 3 for explanation of power and energy.
20. Some have questioned inclusion of customers as a part of the power system. The authors feel that the magnitude, location, and electrical characteristics of customer load are as important as those of generators. Additionally, demand-side management and distributed generation also impact both the electrical and commercial operation.
21. Chapter 4.
22. Another way of classifying transmission is to refer to it as the bulk electric system. NERC, in its Glossary of Terms Used in Reliability Standards, defines the bulk electric system as generally those lines operating at 100 kV or above.
23. Remember that the electric system involves a large capital investment for facilities with service lives measured in decades. Changes to the system are incremental to that which already exists.
24. Transformers are explained in Chapter 3.
25. The substations are sometimes called switching stations. In addition, substations are also called high-voltage substations, bulk-power substations, and distribution substations.
26. There are many glossaries defining the terms used in connection with electric power systems and businesses. One of the most useful is CIGRE Glossary of Terms Used in the Electricity Supply Industry, February 2002. This includes the definitions used by the IEEE, NERC, and EEI. 33"Amicus Brief to Supreme Court," August 2001, www.tca-us.com.
27. In physics texts, the term joule is also used for energy. One joule = 1 watt-second.
28. Named after Alessandro Volta, (1745-1827), an Italian who invented the battery.
29. The voltage associated with an electric generator is called an electromagnetic force or EMF.
30. This work would be done against the electric field.
31. Named after George Simon Ohm (1787-1854), a German physicist.
32. Named after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887), a German physicist.
33. George Westinghouse and Nicola Tesla.
34. Named after Heinrich R. Hertz (1857-1894), a German physicist.
35. In this text, centered dot (.) is used to indicate multiplication.
36. The term root mean squared (RMS) is also used.
37. Since they operate at high voltage, transmission lines generate strong electric fields. If they are heavily loaded, that is, carrying large amounts of power, they also will have strong magnetic fields. Distribution lines, which operate at lower voltages, generate weak electric fields, but can generate strong magnetic fields depending on the local customer load levels.
38. Another name that has been used for this quality is imaginary power. The name is derived from the application of the complex number convention to calculate Z.
39. See the generator capacity curve in Chapter 5.
40. In many instances, the resistance of elements can be ignored because they are typically an order of magnitude smaller than the reactance of the same element.
41. Development is underway on devices that can be inserted in series with transmission lines to change their effective series impedance. Some of these devices are undergoing field testing. If successful, these devices will provide some level of control of the paths on which power will flow. 49"VARs don't travel well"-G. C. Loehr.
42. Over the longer range, electric load can be reduced by replacing existing enduse devices with newer, more efficient ones.
43. Homer M. Rustebakke, 1983, Electric Utility Systems and Practices, 4th ed., Wiley.
44. See discussion in Chapter 8.
45. The terminology here is not yet well established. Some intermittent resources and generators will be very predictable, whereas others will be less so. In general, these generators are intermittent, with variable output and differing degrees of predictability, and, as a consequence, may not be reliably scheduled.
46. Large coal burning power plants typically have either a subcritical or a supercritical boiler. Supercritical units operate at higher temperatures and pressures than subcritical units, resulting in increased turbine efficiencies. See "Supercritical Plants to Come Online in 2009," by Nancy Spring, in the July 2009 issue of Power Engineering for a discussion of the advantages of supercritical boilers.
47. Eddystone Unit 1.
48. NRC website http://www.nrc.gov/. See Chapter 8 for further information on new nuclear plants.
49. Geothermal Energy Associates (www.geo-energy.org).
50. Some countries, such as El Salvador, receive a substantial portion of its electricity from geothermal sources.
51. Solar Energy Industries Association (www.seia.org).
52. National Hydropower Association (www.hydro.org).
53. American Wind Energy Association (www.awea.org).
54. See Chapter 8 for additional information on wind power.
55. National Hydrogen Association (www.hydrogenassociation.org).
56. Source, U.S. DOE.
57. The International Panel on Climate Change, a scientific intergovernmental body set up by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): http://www.ipcc.ch/about/index.htm.
58. See Pew Center on Global Climate Change, http://www.pewtrusts.org/our_ work_category.aspx?id=112l
59. Environmental Defense Fund, http://www.edf. org/home.cfm
60. Carnegie Mellon, http://www.carnegiemellontoday.com/article. asp?aid=412&page=1.
61. Environmentally friendly generation is often, but not always, synonymous with renewable generation.
62. See discussion in Chapter 8.
63. New York Times, February 4, 2009, "Dark Days for Green Energy," by Kate Galbraith.
64. Fernando L. Alvarado, "Subsidies and Reserves for Renewable Energy Projects," XI SEPOPE," 17-20 March 2009, Brussels.
65. In late 2009, a draft energy bill containing legislation establishing a cap and trade system had been passed by the U.S. House of Representatives, but action had yet to be taken by the U.S. Senate.
66. http://www.cmu.edu/electricity.
67. Inadequate R-O-W maintenance was a factor in the Northeast U.S. blackout of 2003.
68. In April 2008, a 2000 foot section of HTS cable was energized as part of a 138 kV feeder on the LIPA system in Long Island, NY. www.doe.energy.gov.
69. A malfunction can also be a situation in which one phase is open without contacting ground.
70. Casazza, J. A., March 2, 1976, Power Injector Control Means for Transmission Service, U.S. Patent No. 3,942,032.
71. The ABB brand name.
72. See Chapter 9 on Reliability.
73. ABB (HVDC Light) and Siemans (HVDC Plus).
74. Wiley Encyclopedia of Energy and the Environment, p. 459, A. Bisio and S. Boots (Eds.), Wiley, 1995.
75. EPRI, The Cost of Power Disturbances for Industrial and Economy Companies, 2001.
76. See discussion of "unscheduleable generating capacity" in Chapter 5.
77. In layman's terms, sensible heat is heat (energy) applied to a substance that does not change the state of the substance, for instance, from a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas.
78. In layman's terms, latent heat is heat (energy) that relates to the change of state of a substance.
79. A chemical reaction in which water is converted into hydrogen and oxygen.
80. www.themoderngrid.org.
81. Its members will include employees from the Office of Electricity Delivery and Electric Reliability and representatives of FERC and the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
82. http://www.oe.energy.gov/smartgrid_taskforce.htm.
83. The Smart Grid: An Introduction, www.oe.energy.gov/SmartGridIntroduction. html.
84. DOE Report, Next Generation Nuclear Energy: http://www.ne.doe.gov/pdf- Files/factSheets/NextGenerationNuclearEnergy.pdf.
85. See article at http://energy.ihs.com/news/nuclear-power/2005/asme-generation- iv-reactor-111405.htm. 107"Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems," presented at the American Nuclear Society's 2002 Winter Meeting: http:gif.inel.gov/roadmap/pdfs/gen_iv_nuclear_ energy_system.pdf.
86. "Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems," presented at the American Nuclear Society's 2002 Winter Meeting: http:gif.inel.gov/roadmap/pdfs/gen_iv_nuclear_ energy_system.pdf.
87. See http://www.futuregenalliance.org/ for information abut the project and its status.
88. Source, DOE.
89. Sumitomo Industries: http://www.sei.co.jp/super/about_e/index.html.
90. ABB, GE, Pirelli, Intermagnetics General, Southwire, and Sumitomo Electric.
91. See Pirelli, Intermagnetics General, Sumitomo Electric, American Superconductor (AMSC) (HTS cable), Nexans (design, manufacturing and design of cable system), Air Liquide (refrigeration system).
92. See American Superconductor, www.amsc.com/products/transmissiongrid/ 104273034641.html 117 EPRI, The Cost of Power Disturbances for Industrial and Economy Companies, 2001.
93. EPRI, The Cost of Power Disturbances for Industrial and Economy Companies, 2001.
94. Cramton and Lein, "Value of Lost Load," University of Maryland paper, February 2000.
95. J. A. Casazza, Generation and Transmission Reliability, CIGRE Paper #32-11, Paris, France, 1970.
96. From About NERC, www.NERC.com.
97. A source of documents on Order 672 can be found at http://www.balch.com/ erl/blog.aspx?entry=34; FERC's summary of Order 672 can be found at: http://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/indus-act/reliability/E-1-overview.pdf.
98. FERC's summary of Order 672 can be found at: http://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/indus-act/reliability/E-1-overview.pdf.
99. NERC website: http://www.nerc.com/page.php?cid=1.
100. http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-meet/2007/031507/E-13.pdf.
101. http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-meet/2007/031507/E-13.pdf.
102. NERC's standards are continually under review and, as necessary, expansion or modification. The present status of work on all standards can be found at http://www.nerc.com/filez/standards/Reliability_Standards_Under_Development. html.
103. The Functional Model can be found at http://www.nerc.com/page. php?cid=2|247|108.
104. As of June 22, 2009, there were 133 Balancing Authorities, 21 Reliability Coordinators, and 319 Transmission Operators. The registry for each of the roles can be found at: www.nerc.com/page.php?cid=3/25.
105. Historically this entity had been called a Control Area. 141"Available Transfer Capability Definitions and Determination," NERC, June 1996.
106. See FERC Order 890, which addresses consistency in calculation of ATC.
107. See Chapter 14 for a discussion of this order.
108. Responsibility for these services is assigned to the various entities in the NERC Functional Model.
109. K. Stahlkoph and P.R. Sharp, Where Technology and Politics Meet-Electric Power Transmission Under Deregulation, IEEE Press, 2000.
110. See Chapter 8 for additional information about the Smart Grid concept.
111. See NERC Standard EOP-001-0-Emergency Operations Planning at http://www.nerc.com/page.php?cid=2|20.
112. Source, NERC standards.
113. NERC Standard 005-1 155 http://www.ferc.gov/legal/maj-ord-reg/land-docs/rm95-9-00k.txt.
114. NERC Planning Standards at www.NERC.com.
115. PJM Annual Report 2007.
116. http://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric.asp 167 From FERC Website www.ferc.gov/about.
117. From FERC Website www.ferc.gov/about.
118. Morgan Stanley Capital Group v. PUD #1 of Snohomish Co., et al., 28 S.Ct. 2733, at 2741, 2747 (2008).
119. The full text of this Act is available online at www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/ 15/ch2C.html.
120. See Chapter 14 for a discussion of DOE's role with respect to the electric utility industry.
121. The Library of Congress Thomas Summary of H.R. 6 can be found at: http://thomas.loc.gov.
122. An extensive list of commentaries on the various Titles can be found at http://www.energy.wsu.edu/documents/library/EnergyPolicyAnalysis.pdf.
123. From the EIA report, Electric Power Annual 2000, Volume 1, August 2001.
124. The material in this section is from the FERC's Website, www.ferc.gov.
125. See Tejas Power v. FERC, D.C. Cir. 1990.
126. The material in this section is from the EPA's website: www.epa.gov.
127. Links to information on each of these laws can be found at http://www.epa. gov/lawsregs/laws/index.html.
128. The material in this section is from the DOE's website: www.doe.gov.
129. On the Road to Energy Security-Implementing a Comprehensive Energy Strategy: A Status Report, http://www.energy.gov/about/EPAct.htm.
130. See www.energy.gov/organization/labs-techcenters.htm. 189"Maintaining Reliability in a Competitive U.S. Electricity Industry, Final Report of the Task Force on Electric System Reliability September 29, 1998"; "The National Transmission Grid Study, U.S. Department of Energy May 2002," www. p.i.energy.gov/ducuments/TransmissionGrid.pdf.
131. "Maintaining Reliability in a Competitive U.S. Electricity Industry, Final Report of the Task Force on Electric System Reliability September 29, 1998"; "The National Transmission Grid Study, U.S. Department of Energy May 2002," www. p.i.energy.gov/ducuments/TransmissionGrid.pdf.
132. Information obtained at NRC website: http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization. html.
133. A source of documents on Order 672 can be found at: http://www.balch.com/ erl/blog.aspx?entry=34.
134. FERC's summary of Order 672 can be found at: http://www.ferc.gov/industries/ electric/indus-act/reliability/E-1-overview.pdf.
135. http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-meet/2007/031507/E-13.pdf.
136. A glossary of terms used in NERC's standards can be found at http://www. nerc.com/page.php?cid=2|20.
137. http://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/indus-act/reliability.asp.
138. http://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/indus-act/reliability.asp.
139. http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-meet/2007/031507/E-13.pdf.
140. http://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/indus-act/reliability.asp.
141. A link to each of the state utility commissions can be found at the NARUC website, www.naruc.org.
142. "National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace" issued by the White House in February 2003 at www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb/cyberspace_strategy.pdf.
143. http://www.dhs.gov/xnews/releases/press_release_0620.shtm.
144. http://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/comm-meet/2008/011708/e-2.pdf.
145. See www.nerc.com/fileUploads/file/news/Executive-Remarks.110509.pdf for a discussion of NERC's 2009 filing on cyber security with FERC.
146. See IEEE paper on location of wind power, http://www.ieee.org/web/emergingtech/ discourses/windpower/windpower_location.html.
147. www.ieee.org/web/emergingtech/discourses/windpower/windpower_location. html.
148. See Figure 1-10 in the DOE-sponsored report-20% Wind Energy by 2030-at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/wind_2030.html.
149. A discussion of cap-and-trade activities can be found in the EIA Report, "NOx Budget Program 2007 Progress Report," Published December 2008, http://www. epa.gov/airmarkets/progress/nbp07.html.
150. See http://www.ferc.gov/industries/electric/gen-info/mergers/mergers-2007.asp for a list of approved mergers and acquisitions since 1995.
151. www.ferc.gov. 238"Remedying Undue Discrimination through Open Access Transmission Service and Standard Electricity Market Design." For a summary see www.library. findlaw.com/2002/Jun/25/132372.html.
152. "Remedying Undue Discrimination through Open Access Transmission Service and Standard Electricity Market Design." For a summary see www.library. findlaw.com/2002/Jun/25/132372.html.
153. FERC subsequently issued Order 890, addressing what it perceived as outstanding issues relating to open access to the transmission system.
154. Much of the material in this section is excerpted directly from FERC's SMD NOPR. We cover the SMD in the money network chapter since the SMD extends FERC's reach into the operation of the wholesale energy market.
155. In late February 2009, the Georgia legislature voted to allow the Southern Company/Georgia Power to include CWIP in rate base for a proposed new nuclear unit.
156. Casazza, J. A., Palermo, P. J., Lucas, J., and Branco, F., "Generation Planning and Transmission Systems," 1988 CIGRE Paper. Also EEI publications.
157. J. A. Casazza, "Electricity Choice: Pick Your Poison-Errant Economics? Lousy Law? Market Manipulation? All Three!," Public Utilities Fortnightly, March 1, 2001.
158. Dan Dolan, vice president of the Electric Power Supply Association as quoted in a New York Times March 12, 2009 article, "Warming up: A consumer backlash against rising electricity prices," By Peter Behr.
159. The material in this section is from the IEEE/PES website, www.ieee.org/organizations/ society/power.
160. See IEEE-U.S. Policy Position Statement-National Energy Policy Recommendations- January 2009. www/ieeeusa.org/policy/positions/energypolicy.pdf.
161. http://www.ieee.usa/forum/positions/electricindustry.html.
162. http://www.asce.org/reportcard/2009/solutions.cfm.
163. www.ASME.org.
164. www.aiche.org.
165. Material from CIGRE Website: www.CIGRE.org.
166. http://www.nema.org/about/.
167. www.aeic.org.
168. The material in this section is from APPA's Website, www.appanet.org.
169. The material in this section is from the EEI's Website, www.eei.org.
170. The material in this section is from ELCON's Website, www.elcon.org.
171. The material in this section is from NRECA's Website, www.nreca.org.
172. Information obtained from http://www.epsa.org.
173. www.nei.org.
174. Material from NARUC's Website: www.naruc.org.
175. http://www.edf.org/home.cfm.
176. www.citizen.org.
177. www.pilp.tc.
178. Both EPRI and NRRI were formed at the suggestion of Joseph C. Swidler, former Chairman of the Federal Power Commission.
179. Material from EPRI's Website: www.EPRI.com.
180. Links to many other research organizations can be found at www.netl.doe.gov/ weblinks/links.html.
181. Material from NRRI's website, www.nrri.ohio-state.edu.
182. Material from PSERC's website, http://www.pserc.wisc.edu/about.htm.