Psychomotor retardation in depression: A systematic review of diagnostic, pathophysiologic, and therapeutic implications

BioMed Research International

Volumn 2013, Issue , 2013, Pages

  Bennabi, Djamila ^a,b   Vandel, Pierre ^a,b   Papaxanthis, Charalambos ^c   Pozzo, Thierry ^c   Haffen, Emmanuel ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF BESANÇON   (France)

^b University Hospital of Besançon   (France)

^c UNIVERSITÉ DE BOURGOGNE   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMINEPTINE; AMITRIPTYLINE; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE; CITALOPRAM; CLOMIPRAMINE; DOPAMINE; DOXEPIN; FLUOXETINE; LITHIUM; LOFEPRAMINE; LORAZEPAM; MIANSERIN; MILNACIPRAN; MINAPRINE; MOOD STABILIZER; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; NORTRIPTYLINE; PAROXETINE; REBOXETINE; SERTRALINE; TRIMIPRAMINE; VENLAFAXINE;

ACTIMETRY; ANTERIOR CINGULATE; ARTICLE; ATYPICAL DEPRESSION; BIPOLAR DEPRESSION; BIPOLAR II DISORDER; BRADYKINESIA; BRADYPHRENIA; BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; CINERADIOGRAPHY; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; CLINICAL OBSERVATION; CLINICAL PRACTICE; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DELUSION; DEPRESSIVE PSYCHOSIS; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; DISEASE SEVERITY; DISORIENTATION; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; EYE MOVEMENT; FACE MUSCLE; GABAERGIC SYSTEM; GAIT; HALLUCINATION; HAMILTON SCALE; HUMAN; KNOWLEDGE; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MELANCHOLIA; MENTAL PERFORMANCE; MONTGOMERY ASBERG DEPRESSION RATING SCALE; MOOD DISORDER; MOTOR ACTIVITY; MOTOR CONTROL; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; MOTOR RETARDATION; NEUROBIOLOGY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; NEUROTRANSMISSION; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PREVALENCE; PROGNOSIS; PSYCHOMOTOR DISORDER; PSYCHOMOTOR RETARDATION; PSYCHOTHERAPY; REACTION TIME; SEX DIFFERENCE; SPEECH; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THERAPY EFFECT; TRANSCRANIAL DIRECT CURRENT STIMULATION; WHITE MATTER; DEPRESSION; META ANALYSIS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

DEPRESSION; HUMANS; PSYCHOMOTOR DISORDERS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84888614917     PISSN: 23146133     EISSN: 23146141     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1155/2013/158746     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Association A. P., Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR 2000 4th Amer Psychiatric
2. Kraepelin E., La Folie Maniaque-Dépressive 1993 Editions Jérôme Millon
3. Sobin C., Sackeim H. A., Psychomotor symptoms of depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1997 154 1 4 17 2-s2.0-0031016615 (Pubitemid 27020186)
4. Widlöcher D., Le Ralentissement Dépressif 1983 Presses Universitaires de France
5. Greden J. F., Carroli B. J., Psychomotor function in affective disorders: an overview of new monitoring techniques. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1981 138 11 1441 1448 2-s2.0-0019406758 (Pubitemid 11030314)
6. Berrios G. E., The History of Mental Symptoms: Descriptive Psychopathology Since the Nineteenth Century 1996 Cambridge University Press
7. Parker G., Hadzi-Pavlovic D., Melancholia: A Disorder of Movement and Mood: A Phenomenological and Neurobiological Review 1996 Cambridge University Press
8. Goodwin F., Jamison K. R., Manic Depressive Illness 1990 Oxford University Press
9. Nelson J. C., Charney D. S., The symptoms of major depressive illness. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1981 138 1 1 13 2-s2.0-0019364104 (Pubitemid 11209744)
10. Dantchev N., Widlöcher D. J., The measurement of retardation in depression. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1998 59 14 19 25 2-s2.0-0031683158 (Pubitemid 28462385)
11. Day R. K., Psychomotor agitation: poorly defined and badly measured. Journal of Affective Disorders 1999 55 2-3 89 98 2-s2.0-0032745911 10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00010-5
12. Moffot A. P. R., Diurnal variation of mood and neuropsychological function in major depression with melancholia. Journal of Affective Disorders 1994 32 4 257 269 2-s2.0-0028557144 10.1016/0165-0327(94)90090-6
13. Lemke M. R., Broderick A., Zeitelberger M., Hartmann W., Motor activity and daily variation of symptom intensity in depressed patients. Neuropsychobiology 1997 36 2 57 61 2-s2.0-0030747246 (Pubitemid 27331260)
14. Scheurich A., Fellgiebel A., Schermuly I., Bauer S., Wölfges R., Müller M. J., Experimental evidence for a motivational origin of cognitive impairment in major depression. Psychological Medicine 2008 38 2 237 246 2-s2.0-38549153226 10.1017/S0033291707002206 (Pubitemid 351156598)
15. Tucha O., Aschenbrenner S., Eichhammer P., Putzhammer A., Sartor H., Klein H. E., Lange K. W., The impact of tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors on handwriting movements of patients with depression. Psychopharmacology 2002 159 2 211 215 2-s2.0-0036172540 10.1007/s002130100921 (Pubitemid 34146566)
16. Snaith R. P., Hamilton rating scale for depression. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1977 131 431 432 2-s2.0-0017545794
17. Peyre F., Martinez R., Calache M., Verdoux H., Bourgeois M., New validation of the Montgomery and Asberg Depression Scale (MADRS) on a sample of 147 hospitalized depressed patients. Annales Medico-Psychologiques 1989 147 7 762 767 2-s2.0-0024310828 (Pubitemid 20002206)
18. Roth M., Gurney C., Mountjoy C. Q., The Newcastle rating scales. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1983 68 310 42 54 2-s2.0-0021059055 (Pubitemid 14191481)
19. Jouvent R., Frechette D., Binoux F., Lancrenon S., des Lauriers A., Retardation in depressive states: elaboration of a quantitative rating scale. Encephale 1980 6 1 41 58 (Pubitemid 10147041)
20. Sobin C., Mayer L., Endicott J., The motor agitation and retardation scale: a scale for the assessment of motor abnormalities in depressed patients. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 1998 10 1 85 92 2-s2.0-0031894468 (Pubitemid 28135128)
21. Parker G., Hadzi-Pavlovic D., Austin M.-P., Mitchell P., Wilhelm K., Hickie I., Boyce P., Eyers K., Sub-typing depression, I. Is psychomotor disturbance necessary and sufficient to the definition of melancholia? Psychological Medicine 1995 25 4 815 823 2-s2.0-0029155468
22. Hardy P., Jouvent R., Widlocher D., Speech pause time and the retardation rating scale for depression (ERD). Towards a reciprocal validation. Journal of Affective Disorders 1984 6 1 123 127 2-s2.0-0021325575 10.1016/0165-0327(84) 90014-4 (Pubitemid 14158979)
23. Hoffmann G. M. A., Gonze J. C., Mendlewicz J., Speech pause time as a method for the evaluation of psychomotor retardation in depressive illness. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1985 146 535 538 2-s2.0-0021983783 (Pubitemid 15099842)
24. Raoux N., Circadian pattern of motor activity in major depressed patients undergoing antidepressant therapy: relationship between actigraphic measures and clinical course. Psychiatry Research 1994 52 1 85 98 2-s2.0-0028244812 10.1016/0165-1781(94)90122-8 (Pubitemid 24158106)
25. Dantchev N., Allilaire J.-F., Raoux N., Significance of studies of motor activity in depression. Annales Medico-Psychologiques 1992 150 2-3 206 210 2-s2.0-0026724954
26. Royant-Parola S., Borbely A. A., Tobler I., Monitoring of long-term motor activity in depressed patients. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1986 149 288 293 2-s2.0-0022500966 (Pubitemid 16020997)
27. Bonin-Guillaume S., Sautel L., Demattei C., Jouve E., Blin O., Validation of the Retardation Rating Scale for detecting depression in geriatric inpatients. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2007 22 1 68 76 2-s2.0-33846269288 10.1002/gps.1657 (Pubitemid 46117340)
28. Szabadi E., Bradshaw C. M., Besson J. A. O., Elongation of pause time in speech: a simple, objective measure of motor retardation in depression. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1976 129 12 592 597 2-s2.0-0017081019
29. Greden J. F., Albala A. A., Smokler I. A., Speech pause time: a marker of psychomotor retardation among endogenous depressives. Biological Psychiatry 1981 16 9 851 859 2-s2.0-0019371004 (Pubitemid 11003876)
30. Nilsonne A., Acoustic analysis of speech variables during depression and after improvement. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1987 76 3 235 245 2-s2.0-0023408790
31. Nilsonne A., Speech characteristics as indicators of depressive illness. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1988 77 3 253 263 2-s2.0-0023944459
32. Kuny St. K. S., Stassen H. H., Speaking behavior and voice sound characteristics in depressive patients during recovery. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1993 27 3 289 307 2-s2.0-0027365655 10.1016/0022-3956(93)90040-9 (Pubitemid 23344950)
33. Flint A. J., Black S. E., Campbell-Taylor I., Gailey G. F., Levinton C., Abnormal speech articulation, psychomotor retardation, and subcortical dysfunction in major depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1993 27 3 309 319 2-s2.0-0027361170 10.1016/0022-3956(93)90041-Y (Pubitemid 23344951)
34. Alpert M., Pouget E. R., Silva R. R., Reflections of depression in acoustic measures of the patient's speech. Journal of Affective Disorders 2001 66 1 59 69 2-s2.0-0034862553 10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00335-9 (Pubitemid 32787046)
35. Cannizzaro M., Harel B., Reilly N., Chappell P., Snyder P. J., Voice acoustical measurement of the severity of major depression. Brain and Cognition 2004 56 1 30 35 2-s2.0-4544243929 10.1016/j.bandc.2004.05.003 (Pubitemid 39223319)
36. Hergueta T., Delgado F., Lecrubier Y., Quantitative video-analysis of gait in depressed inpatients. European Neuropsychopharmacology 1996 6 supplement 4 S4 S100
37. Lemke M. R., Wendorff T., Mieth B., Buhl K., Linnemann M., Spatiotemporal gait patterns during over ground locomotion in major depression compared with healthy controls. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2000 34 4-5 277 283 2-s2.0-0033743149 10.1016/S0022-3956(00)00017-0
38. Hausdorff J. M., Peng C.-K., Goldberger A. L., Stoll A. L., Gait unsteadiness and fall risk in two affective disorders: a preliminary study. BMC Psychiatry 2004 4, article no. 39 2-s2.0-12944281496 10.1186/1471-244X-4-39 (Pubitemid 40177130)
39. Lecrubier Y., Physical components of depression and psychomotor retardation. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2006 67 supplement 6 23 26 2-s2.0-33746071938 (Pubitemid 44078109)
40. Volkers A. C., Tulen J. H. M., Van Den Broek W. W., Bruijn J. A., Passchier J., Pepplinkhuizen L., Motor activity and autonomic cardiac functioning in major depressive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders 2003 76 1-3 23 30 2-s2.0-0042967502 10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00066-6 (Pubitemid 37013352)
41. Iverson G. L., Objective assessment of psychomotor retardation in primary care patients with depression. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 2004 27 1 31 37 2-s2.0-1542314774 10.1023/B:JOBM.0000013642.43978.f9 (Pubitemid 38315556)
42. Lemke M. R., Schleidt M., Temporal segmentation of human short-term behavior in everyday activities and interview sessions. Naturwissenschaften 1999 86 6 289 292 2-s2.0-0033004615 10.1007/s001140050617 (Pubitemid 29291155)
43. Aybek S., Berney A., Salarian A., Valloton S., Aminian K., Vingerhoets F. J. G., Objective evaluation of gait parameters and psychomotor retardation in major depression. Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress on Gait & Mental Function 2008
44. van Hoof J. J. M., Hulstijn W., Van Mier H., Pagen M., Figure drawing and psychomotor retardation: preliminary report. Journal of Affective Disorders 1993 29 4 263 266 2-s2.0-0027141406 10.1016/0165-0327(93)90016-D (Pubitemid 24003832)
45. Sabbe B., Hulstijn W., van Hoof J., Zitman F., Fine motor retardation and depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1996 30 4 295 306 2-s2.0-0030199030 10.1016/0022-3956(96)00014-3 (Pubitemid 26340791)
46. Sabbe B., Hulstijn W., van Hoof J., Tuynman-Qua H. G., Zitman F., Retardation in depression: assessment by means of simple motor tasks. Journal of Affective Disorders 1999 55 1 39 44 2-s2.0-0032865745 10.1016/S0165-0327(98) 00087-1 (Pubitemid 29412913)
47. Pier M. P. B. I., Hulstijn W., Sabbe B. G. C., Differential patterns of psychomotor functioning in unmedicated melancholic and nonmelancholic depressed patients. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2004 38 4 425 435 2-s2.0-2942627770 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2003.11.008 (Pubitemid 38760011)
48. Pier M. P. B. I., Hulstijn W., Sabbe B. G. C., Psychomotor retardation in elderly depressed patients. Journal of Affective Disorders 2004 81 1 73 77 2-s2.0-2942622198 10.1016/j.jad.2003.08.002 (Pubitemid 38759330)
49. Mergl R., Juckel G., Rihl J., Henkel V., Karner M., Tigges P., Schröter A., Hegerl U., Kinematical analysis of handwriting movements in depressed patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2004 109 5 383 391 2-s2.0-1842833501 10.1046/j.1600-0447.2003.00262.x (Pubitemid 38491284)
50. Hoffstaedter F., Sarlon J., Grefkes C., Eickhoff S. B., Internally vs. externally triggered movements in patients with major depression. Behavioural Brain Research 2012 228 1 125 132 2-s2.0-84055224026 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.11.024
51. Schwartz G. E., Fair P. L., Salt P., Facial imagery and inagery in depression: an electromyographic study. Psychosomatic Medicine 1976 38 5 337 347 2-s2.0-0017131922
52. Sweeney J. A., Strojwas M. H., Mann J. J., Thase M. E., Prefrontal and cerebellar abnormalities in major depression: evidence from oculomotor studies. Biological Psychiatry 1998 43 8 584 594 2-s2.0-0032523098 10.1016/S0006-3223(97) 00485-X (Pubitemid 28198226)
53. Mahlberg R., Steinacher B., Mackert A., Flechtner K.-M., Basic parameters of saccadic eye movements-differences between unmedicated schizophrenia and affective disorder patients. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2001 251 5 205 210 2-s2.0-0035668853 10.1007/s004060170028 (Pubitemid 34028474)
54. Winograd-Gurvich C., Georgiou-Karistianis N., Fitzgerald P. B., Millist L., White O. B., Ocular motor differences between melancholic and non-melancholic depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 2006 93 1-3 193 203 2-s2.0-33744537251 10.1016/j.jad.2006.03.018 (Pubitemid 43816072)
55. Blackburn I. M., Mental and psychomotor speed in depression and mania. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1975 126 4 329 335 2-s2.0-0016794724
56. Cornell D. G., Suarez R., Berent S., Psychomotor retardation in melancholic and nonmelancholic depression: cognitive and motor components. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1984 93 2 150 157 2-s2.0-0021433584 10.1037/0021-843X.93.2.150
57. Smith M. J., Brébion G., Banquet J.-P., Allilaire J.-F., Experimental evidence for two dimensions of cognitive disorders in depressives. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1994 28 4 401 411 2-s2.0-0028007363 10.1016/0022-3956(94)90021-3 (Pubitemid 24370026)
58. Brébion G., Retardation of mentation in depressives: posner's covert orientation of visual attention test. Journal of Affective Disorders 1995 35 3 107 115 2-s2.0-0028867724 10.1016/0165-0327(95)00044-5
59. Brebion G., Smith M. J., Allilaire J. F., Psychometric characteristics of ideational retardation in depressives. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 1995 34 3 371 381 2-s2.0-0029118498
60. Brébion G., Smith M. J., Widlocher D., Discrimination and response bias in memory: effects of depression severity and psychomotor retardation. Psychiatry Research 1997 70 2 95 103 2-s2.0-0343907326 10.1016/S0165-1781(97) 03098-9 (Pubitemid 27245158)
61. Lemelin S., Baruch P., Vincent A., Laplante L., Everett J., Vincent P., Deficient distractor inhibition or processing resource deficit? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1996 184 2 114 121 2-s2.0-0029878682
62. Lemelin S., Baruch P., Clinical psychomotor retardation and attention in depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1998 32 2 81 88 2-s2.0-0032029315 10.1016/S0022-3956(98)00002-8 (Pubitemid 28306460)
63. Bonin-Guillaume S., Hasbroucq T., Blin O., Psychomotor retardation associated to depression differs from that of normal aging. Psychologie et NeuroPsychiatrie du Vieillissement 2008 6 2 137 144 2-s2.0-46449139069 10.1684/pnv.2008.0121 (Pubitemid 351929642)
64. Chen J., Yang L., Ma W., Ego-rotation and object-rotation in major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Research 2013 209 1 32 39
65. Caligiuri M. P., Ellwanger J., Motor and cognitive aspects of motor retardation in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 2000 57 1-3 83 93 2-s2.0-0034598439 10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00068-3 (Pubitemid 30119960)
66. van Hoof J. J. M., Jogems-Kosterman B. J. M., Sabbe B. G. C., Zitman F. G., Hulstijn W., Differentiation of cognitive and motor slowing in the Digit Symbol Test (DST): differences between depression and schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1998 32 2 99 103 2-s2.0-0032029913 10.1016/S0022-3956(98) 00057-0 (Pubitemid 28314078)
67. Rogers D., Lees A. J., Smith E., Bradyphrenia in Parkinson's disease and psychomotor retardation in depressive illness: an experimental study. Brain 1987 110 3 761 776 2-s2.0-0023178052 (Pubitemid 17081174)
68. Rogers M. A., Bradshaw J. L., Phillips J. G., Chiu E., Reliance on external cues during serial sequential movement in major depression. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2000 69 2 237 239 2-s2.0-0033940204 10.1136/jnnp.69.2.237 (Pubitemid 30466031)
69. El Massioui F., Everett J., Martin M.-T., Jouvent R., Widlöcher D., Attention deficits in depression: an electrophysiological marker. NeuroReport 1996 7 15-17 2483 2486 2-s2.0-0029845165 (Pubitemid 26403001)
70. Bange F., Bathien N., Visual cognitive dysfunction in depression: an event-related potential study. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1998 108 5 472 481 2-s2.0-0031680745 10.1016/S0168-5597(98) 00024-0 (Pubitemid 28442717)
71. Schrijvers D., De Bruijn E. R. A., Maas Y. J., Vancoillie P., Hulstijn W., Sabbe B. G. C., Action monitoring and depressive symptom reduction in major depressive disorder. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2009 71 3 218 224 2-s2.0-61349181386 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.09.005
72. Bench C. J., Friston L. K. J., Brown R. G., Frackowiak R. S. J., Dolan R. J., Regional cerebral blood flow in depression measured by positron emission tomography: the relationship with clinical dimensions. Psychological Medicine 1993 23 3 579 590 2-s2.0-0027326614 (Pubitemid 23268076)
73. Hickie I., Scott E., Mitchell P., Wilhelm K., Austin M.-P., Bennett B., Subcortical hyperintensities on magnetic resonance imaging: clinical correlates and prognostic significance in patients with severe depression. Biological Psychiatry 1995 37 3 151 160 2-s2.0-0028832032 10.1016/0006-3223(94)00174-2
74. Hickie I., Ward P., Scott E., Haindl W., Walker B., Dixon J., Turner K., Neo-striatal rCBF correlates of psychomotor slowing in patients with major depression. Psychiatry Research 1999 92 2-3 75 81 2-s2.0-0033406186 10.1016/S0925-4927(99)00038-4 (Pubitemid 30009914)
75. Videbech P., Ravnkilde B., Pedersen T. H., Hartvig H., Egander A., Clemmensen K., Rasmussen N. A., Andersen F., Gjedde A., Rosenberg R., The Danish PET/depression project: clinical symptoms and cerebral blood flow. A regions-of-interest analysis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2002 106 1 35 44 2-s2.0-0036319463 10.1034/j.1600-0447.2002.02245.x (Pubitemid 34828146)
76. Naismith S., Hickie I., Ward P. B., Turner K., Scott E., Little C., Mitchell P., Wilhelm K., Parker G., Caudate nucleus volumes and genetic determinants of homocysteine metabolism in the prediction of psychomotor speed in older persons with depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2002 159 12 2096 2098 2-s2.0-0036895715 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.12.2096 (Pubitemid 35423872)
77. Walther S., Höfle O., Federspiel A., Horn H., Hügli S., Wiest R., Strik W., Müller T. J., Neural correlates of disbalanced motor control in major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 2012 136 1-2 124 133 2-s2.0-84857040323 10.1016/j.jad.2011.08.020
78. Walther S., Hügli S., Höfle O., Federspiel A., Horn H., Bracht T., Wiest R., Strik W., Müller T. J., Frontal white matter integrity is related to psychomotor retardation in major depression. Neurobiology of Disease 2012 47 1 13 19 2-s2.0-84858844312 10.1016/j.nbd.2012.03.019
79. Bracht T., Federspiel A., Schnell S., Cortico-cortical white matter motor pathway microstructure is related to psychomotor retardation in major depressive disorder. Plos One 2012 7 12 e52238 10.1371/journal.pone.0052238
80. 2 binding in depression. Psychological Medicine 1997 27 6 1247 1256 2-s2.0-0030734805 10.1017/S0033291797005382 (Pubitemid 27494090)
81. Austin M.-P., Mitchell P., Hadzi-Pavlovic D., Hickie I., Parker G., Chan J., Eyers K., Effect of apomorphine on motor and cognitive function in melancholic patients: a preliminary report. Psychiatry Research 2000 97 2-3 207 215 2-s2.0-0034722930 10.1016/S0165-1781(00)00222-5 (Pubitemid 32126558)
82. Martinot M.-L. P., Bragulat V., Artiges E., Dollé F., Hinnen F., Jouvent R., Martinot J.-L., Decreased presynaptic dopamine function in the left caudate of depressed patients with affective flattening and psychomotor retardation. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2001 158 2 314 316 2-s2.0-0035144117 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.2.314 (Pubitemid 32116533)
83. 11C]raclopride positron emission tomography study. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2006 163 9 1594 1602 2-s2.0-33749070832 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.9.1594 (Pubitemid 44465761)
84. Bajbouj M., Lisanby S. H., Lang U. E., Danker-Hopfe H., Heuser I., Neu P., Evidence for impaired cortical inhibition in patients with unipolar major depression. Biological Psychiatry 2006 59 5 395 400 2-s2.0-33344471179 10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.07.036 (Pubitemid 43289217)
85. Mitchell P., Hadzi-Pavlovic D., Parker G., Hickie I., Wilhelm K., Brodaty H., Boyce P., Depressive psychomotor disturbance, cortisol, and dexamethasone. Biological Psychiatry 1996 40 10 941 950 2-s2.0-0030588955 10.1016/0006-3223(95) 00635-4 (Pubitemid 26391671)
86. van Londen L., Goekoop J. G., Van Kempen G. M. J., Frankhuijzen- Sierevogel A. C., Wiegant V. M., Van Der Velde E. A., De Wied D., Plasma levels of arginine vasopressin elevated in patients with major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997 17 4 284 292 2-s2.0-0030869685 10.1016/S0893- 133X(97)00054-7 (Pubitemid 27440650)
87. van Londen L., Kerkhof G. A., Van Den Berg F., Goekoop J. G., Zwinderman K. H., Frankhuijzen-Sierevogel A. C., Wiegant V. M., De Wied D., Plasma arginine vasopressin and motor activity in major depression. Biological Psychiatry 1998 43 3 196 204 2-s2.0-0032006550 10.1016/S0006-3223(97)80433-7 (Pubitemid 28096557)
88. Del Zompo M., Bernardi F., Burrai C., Bocchetta A., A double-blind study of minaprine versus amitriptyline in major depression. Neuropsychobiology 1990 24 2 79 83 2-s2.0-0025674755
89. Rampello L., Nicoletti G., Raffaele R., Dopaminergic hypothesis for retarded depression: a symptom profile for predicting therapeutical responses. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1991 84 6 552 554 2-s2.0-0026348519
90. Burns R. A., Predictors of response to amine-specific antidepressants. Journal of Affective Disorders 1995 35 3 97 106 2-s2.0-0028835262 10.1016/0165-0327(95)00039-9
91. Entsuah R., Upton G. V., Rudolph R., Efficacy of venlafaxine treatment in depressed patients with psychomotor retardation or agitation: a meta-analysis. Human Psychopharmacology 1995 10 3 195 200 2-s2.0-0029076373 10.1002/hup.470100305
92. Sabbe B., van Hoof J., Hulstijn W., Zitman F., Changes in fine motor retardation in depressed patients treated with fluoxetine. Journal of Affective Disorders 1996 40 3 149 157 2-s2.0-0030583569 10.1016/0165-0327(96)00052-3 (Pubitemid 26338513)
93. Flament M. F., Lane R. M., Zhu R., Ying Z., Predictors of an acute antidepressant response to fluoxetine and sertraline. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 1999 14 5 259 275 2-s2.0-0033303280
94. Bondareff W., Alpert M., Friedhoff A. J., Richter E. M., Clary C. M., Batzar E., Comparison of sertraline and nortriptyline in the treatment of major depressive disorder in late life. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2000 157 5 729 736 2-s2.0-0034099983 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.5.729 (Pubitemid 30249651)
95. Navarro V., Gastó C., Torres X., Marcos T., Pintor L., Citalopram versus nortriptyline in late-life depression: a 12-week randomized single-blind study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2001 103 6 435 440 2-s2.0-0035012684 10.1034/j.1600-0447.2001.00228.x (Pubitemid 32473035)
96. Ferguson J. M., Wesnes K. A., Schwartz G. E., Reboxetine versus paroxetine versus placebo: effects on cognitive functioning in depressed patients. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2003 18 1 9 14 2-s2.0-0037241647 10.1097/00004850-200301000-00002 (Pubitemid 36127055)
97. Volkers A. C., Tulen J. H. M., Van Den Broek W. W., Bruijn J. A., Passchier J., Pepplinkhuizen L., 24-Hour motor activity after treatment with imipramine or fluvoxamine in major depressive disorder. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2002 12 4 273 278 2-s2.0-0036019874 10.1016/S0924- 977X(02)00019-6 (Pubitemid 34753097)
98. Caligiuri M. P., Gentili V., Eberson S., Kelsoe J., Rapaport M., Gillin J. C., A quantitative neuromotor predictor of antidepressant non-response in patients with major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 2003 77 2 135 141 2-s2.0-0242329800 10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00107-6 (Pubitemid 37363341)
99. Sechter D., Vandel P., Weiller E., Pezous N., Cabanac F., Tournoux A., A comparative study of milnacipran and paroxetine in outpatients with major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 2004 83 2-3 233 236 2-s2.0-8844279169 10.1016/j.jad.2004.07.002 (Pubitemid 39536200)
100. Taylor B. P., Bruder G. E., Stewart J. W., McGrath P. J., Halperin J., Ehrlichman H., Quitkin F. M., Psychomotor slowing as a predictor of fluoxetine nonresponse in depressed outpatients. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2006 163 1 73 78 2-s2.0-30044448181 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.73 (Pubitemid 43050106)
101. Mallinckrodt C. H., Prakash A., Houston J. P., Swindle R., Detke M. J., Fava M., Differential antidepressant symptom efficacy: placebo-controlled comparisons of duloxetine and SSRIs (fluoxetine, paroxetine, escitalopram). Neuropsychobiology 2007 56 2-3 73 85 2-s2.0-40349111453 10.1159/000111537 (Pubitemid 351340017)
102. Herrera-Guzmán I., Gudayol-Ferré E., Lira-Mandujano J., Herrera-Abarca J., Herrera-Guzmán D., Montoya-Pérez K., Guardia-Olmos J., Cognitive predictors of treatment response to bupropion and cognitive effects of bupropion in patients with major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Research 2008 160 1 72 82 2-s2.0-44649105675 10.1016/j.psychres.2007. 04.012
103. Singh A. B., Bousman C. A., Ng C. H., Byron K., Psychomotor depressive symptoms may differentially respond to venlafaxine. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2013 28 3 121 126 10.1097/YIC.0b013e32835f1b9f
104. Jouvent R., Le Houezec J., Payan C., Mikkelsen H., Fermanian J., Millet V. É., Dufour H., Dimensional assessment of onset of action of antidepressants: a comparative study of moclobemide vs. clomipramine in depressed patients with blunted affect and psychomotor retardation. Psychiatry Research 1998 79 3 267 275 2-s2.0-0032514130 10.1016/S0165-1781(98)00046-8 (Pubitemid 28346474)
105. Joffe R. T., Uhde T. W., Post R. M., Minichiello M. D., Motor activity in depressed patients treated with carbamazepine. Biological Psychiatry 1987 22 8 941 946 2-s2.0-0023238846 (Pubitemid 17095317)
106. Álvarez E., Pérez-Solá V., Pérez-Blanco J., Queraltó J. M., Torrubia R., Noguera R., Predicting outcome of lithium added to antidepressants in resistant depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 1997 42 2-3 179 186 2-s2.0-0343923685 10.1016/S0165-0327(96)01407-3 (Pubitemid 27170163)
107. Hantouche E. G., Akiskal H. S., Lancrenon S., Chatenêt- Duchêne L., Mood stabilizer augmentation in apparently "unipolar" MDD: predictors of response in the naturalistic French national EPIDEP study. Journal of Affective Disorders 2005 84 2-3 243 249 2-s2.0-13544277434 10.1016/j.jad.2004.01.006 (Pubitemid 40222506)
108. Strian F., Albert W., Klicpera C., Course of depressive mood and psychomotor activation in endogenous depression. Archiv fur Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 1979 227 3 193 206 2-s2.0-0018666559 (Pubitemid 10219323)
109. Hickie I., Parsonage B., Parker G., Prediction of response to electroconvulsive therapy. Preliminary validation of a sign-based typology of depression. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1990 157 65 71 2-s2.0-0025309557 (Pubitemid 20208662)
110. Buchan H., Johnstone E., McPherson K., Palmer R. L., Crow T. J., Brandon S., Who benefits from electroconvulsive therapy? Combined results of the Leicester and Northwick Park trials. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1992 160 355 359 2-s2.0-0026581468
111. Sobin C., Prudic J., Devanand D. P., Nobler M. S., Sackeim H. A., Who responds to electroconvulsive therapy?: a comparison of effective and ineffective forms of treatment. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1996 169 3 322 328 2-s2.0-0029761994
112. Hickie I., Mason C., Parker G., Brodaty H., Prediction of ECT response: validation of a refined sign-based (CORE) system for defining melancholia. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1996 169 1 68 74 2-s2.0-0029742513
113. Höppner J., Schulz M., Irmisch G., Mau R., Schläfke D., Richter J., Antidepressant efficacy of two different rTMS procedures: high frequency over left versus low frequency over right prefrontal cortex compared with sham stimulation. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2003 253 2 103 109 2-s2.0-0141781285 (Pubitemid 37205486)
114. Höppner J., Berger C., Walter U., Padberg F., Buchmann J., Herwig U., Domes G., Influence of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on special symptoms in depressed patients. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 2010 28 4 577 586 2-s2.0-77956240745 10.3233/RNN-2010-0557
115. Baeken C., De Raedt R., Santermans L., Zeeuws D., Vanderhasselt M. A., Meers M., Vanderbruggen N., HF-rTMS treatment decreases psychomotor retardation in medication-resistant melancholic depression. Progress in Neuro- Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 2010 34 4 684 687 2-s2.0-77952672313 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.03.021
116. Ullrich H., Kranaster L., Sigges E., Andrich J., Sartorius A., Ultra-high-frequency left prefrontal transcranial magnetic stimulation as augmentation in severely ill patients with depression: a naturalistic sham-controlled, double-blind, randomized trial. Neuropsychobiology 2012 66 3 141 148 10.1159/000339561
117. Loo C. K., Sachdev P., Martin D., Pigot M., Alonzo A., Malhi G. S., Lagopoulos J., Mitchell P., A double-blind, sham-controlled trial of transcranial direct current stimulation for the treatment of depression. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2010 13 1 61 69 2-s2.0-77949657898 10.1017/S1461145709990411
118. Loo C. K., Alonzo A., Martin D., Mitchell P. B., Galvez V., Sachdev P., Transcranial direct current stimulation for depression: 3-week, randomised, sham-controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2012 200 1 52 59 2-s2.0-84855543587 10.1192/bjp.bp.111.097634
119. Parker G., Hadzi-Pavlovic D., Hickie I., Brodaty H., Boyce P., Mitchell P., Wilhelm K., Sub-typing depression, III. Development of a clinical algorithm for melancholia and comparison with other diagnostic measures. Psychological Medicine 1995 25 4 833 840 2-s2.0-0029127836
120. Judd L. L., Rapaport M. H., Paulus M. P., Brown J. L., Subsyndromal symptomatic depression: a new mood disorder? The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1994 55 4, supplement 18 28 2-s2.0-0028294184 (Pubitemid 24135964)
121. Alexopoulos G. S., Vrontou C., Kakuma T., Meyers B. S., Young R. C., Klausner E., Clarkin J., Disability in geriatric depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1996 153 7 877 885 2-s2.0-0029897014 (Pubitemid 26225461)
122. Narita H., Odawara T., Iseki E., Kosaka K., Hirayasu Y., Psychomotor retardation correlates with frontal hypoperfusion and the Modified Stroop Test in patients with major depression under 60-years-old. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 2004 58 4 389 395 2-s2.0-4243187146 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2004. 01273.x (Pubitemid 39108541)
123. Leventhal A. M., Pettit J. W., Lewinsohn P. M., Characterizing major depression phenotypes by presence and type of psychomotor disturbance in adolescents and young adults. Depression and Anxiety 2008 25 7 575 592 2-s2.0-49149125406 10.1002/da.20328
124. Hildebrandt M. G., Stage K. B., Kragh-Soerensen P., Gender and depression: a study of severity and symptomatology of depressive disorders (ICD-10) in general practice. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2003 107 3 197 202 2-s2.0-0037371549 10.1034/j.1600-0447.2003.02108.x (Pubitemid 36250279)
125. Avery D., Silverman J., Psychomotor retardation and agitation in depression. Relationship to age, sex, and response to treatment. Journal of Affective Disorders 1984 7 1 67 76 2-s2.0-0021270027 10.1016/0165-0327(84)90066- 1 (Pubitemid 14087001)
126. Kornstein S. G., Schatzberg A. F., Thase M. E., Yonkers K. A., McCullough J. P., Keitner G. I., Gelenberg A. J., Ryan C. E., Hess A. L., Harrison W., Davis S. M., Keller M. B., Gender differences in chronic major and double depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 2000 60 1 1 11 2-s2.0-18244411062 10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00158-5 (Pubitemid 30625239)
127. Murray J. B., Effects of valium and librium on human psychomotor and cognitive functions. Genetic Psychology Monographs 1984 109 2 167 197 2-s2.0-0021430311
128. Hindmarch I., Psychomotor function and psychoactive drugs. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2004 58 7 S720 S740 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2004. 02279.x 2-s2.0-16644370600
129. King D. J., The effect of neuroleptics on cognitive and psychomotor function. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1990 157 799 811 2-s2.0-0025222024
130. Parker G., Hadzi-Pavlovic D., Hickie I., Boyce P., Mitchell P., Wilhelm K., Brodaty H., Distinguishing psychotic and non-psychotic melancholia. Journal of Affective Disorders 1991 22 3 135 148 2-s2.0-0025864667 10.1016/0165-0327(91) 90047-V
131. Hasler G., Drevets W. C., Manji H. K., Charney D. S., Discovering endophenotypes for major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004 29 10 1765 1781 2-s2.0-5044228631 10.1038/sj.npp.1300506 (Pubitemid 39336788)
132. Benazzi F., Psychomotor changes in melancholic and atypical depression: unipolar and bipolar-II subtypes. Psychiatry Research 2002 112 3 211 220 2-s2.0-0037112415 10.1016/S0165-1781(02)00241-X (Pubitemid 35351722)
133. Hantouche E. G., Akiskal H. S., Bipolar II vs. unipolar depression: psychopathologic differentiation by dimensional measures. Journal of Affective Disorders 2005 84 2-3 127 132 2-s2.0-13544259655 10.1016/j.jad.2004.01.017 (Pubitemid 40222493)
134. Mitchell P., Parker G., Jamieson K., Wilhelm K., Hickie I., Brodaty H., Boyce P., Hadzi-Pavlovic D., Roy K., Are there any differences between bipolar and unipolar melancholia? Journal of Affective Disorders 1992 25 2 97 105 2-s2.0-0026772502 10.1016/0165-0327(92)90072-E
135. Volkers A. C., Tulen J. H., Van Den Broek W. W., Bruijn J. A., Passchier
136. Krishnan V., Nestler E. J., Linking molecules to mood: new insight into the biology of depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2010 167 11 1305 1320 2-s2.0-78349241786 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.10030434
137. Murray E. A., Wise S. P., Drevets W. C., Localization of dysfunction in major depressive disorder: prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Biological Psychiatry 2011 69 12 e43 e54 2-s2.0-79958139969 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.041
138. Hamner M. B., Diamond B. I., Plasma dopamine and norepinephrine correlations with psychomotor retardation, anxiety, and depression in non-psychotic depressed patients: a pilot study. Psychiatry Research 1996 64 3 209 211 2-s2.0-0030590656 10.1016/S0165-1781(96)02879-X (Pubitemid 26380240)
139. Dunkin J. J., Leuchter A. F., Cook I. A., Kasl-Godley J. E., Abrams M., Rosenberg-Thompson S., Executive dysfunction predicts nonresponse to fluoxetine in major depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 2000 60 1 13 23 2-s2.0-0033884356 10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00157-3 (Pubitemid 30625240)
140. Porter R. J., Bourke C., Gallagher P., Neuropsychological impairment in major depression: its nature, origin and clinical significance. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2007 41 2 115 128 2-s2.0-34248148140 10.1080/00048670601109881 (Pubitemid 46705623)
141. Papakostas G. I., Major depressive disorder: psychosocial impairment and key considerations in functional improvement. The American Journal of Managed Care 2009 15 11, supplement S316 S321 2-s2.0-77950602207