Management of end-stage liver disease

Medical Clinics of North America

Volumn 98, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 119-152

  Liou, Iris W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Ascites; Cirrhosis; Decompensation; Hepatic encephalopathy; Peritonitis; Varices

Indexed keywords

ALBUMIN; ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE; CA 125 ANTIGEN; CARCINOEMBRYONIC ANTIGEN; CARVEDILOL; CEFOTAXIME; CEFTRIAXONE; CEPHALOSPORIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DIURETIC AGENT; FUROSEMIDE; LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE; LAXATIVE; LEVOFLOXACIN; METRONIDAZOLE; MIDODRINE; NADOLOL; NEOMYCIN; NORFLOXACIN; OCTREOTIDE; OFLOXACIN; PIPERACILLIN PLUS TAZOBACTAM; PROPRANOLOL; PROTEIN; RIFAXIMIN; SERUM ALBUMIN; SPIRONOLACTONE; TERLIPRESSIN; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACUTE LIVER FAILURE; ALCOHOL LIVER DISEASE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ASCITES; ASCITES FLUID; BACTERIAL PERITONITIS; BILIARY PERITONITIS; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; BRAIN DISEASE; BUDD CHIARI SYNDROME; CHILD TURCOTTE PUGH SCORE; CHYLOUS ASCITES; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONSTRICTIVE PERICARDITIS; CREATININE BLOOD LEVEL; DECOMPENSATED LIVER CIRRHOSIS; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR CLOTTING; DIURETIC THERAPY; END STAGE LIVER DISEASE; ESOPHAGUS VARICES; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HEART FAILURE; HUMAN; HYDROTHORAX; HYPERPLASIA; IMAGE GUIDED BIOPSY; INFECTION PREVENTION; INTERNATIONAL NORMALIZED RATIO; INTESTINE OBSTRUCTION; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER METASTASIS; LIVER POLYCYSTIC DISEASE; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; LIVER VEIN OBSTRUCTION; LIVER VENOOCCLUSIVE DISEASE; MEIGS SYNDROME; MODEL FOR END STAGE LIVER DISEASE SCORE; MORTALITY; MYXEDEMA; NEPHROTIC SYNDROME; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; NUTRITION; PARACENTESIS; PERITONEUM VEIN SHUNT; PORTAL HYPERTENSION; PRIMARY BILIARY CIRRHOSIS; PRIMARY SCLEROSING CHOLANGITIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; PROTEIN INTAKE; PROTHROMBIN TIME; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SARCOIDOSIS; SCREENING; SODIUM RESTRICTION; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; TRANSJUGULAR INTRAHEPATIC PORTOSYSTEMIC SHUNT; TUBERCULOSIS; TUBERCULOUS PERITONITIS; UMBILICAL HERNIA; UNITED STATES; UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL BLEEDING; UREA NITROGEN BLOOD LEVEL; VARICOSIS; VENOUS PRESSURE;

ASCITES; CIRRHOSIS; DECOMPENSATION; HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY; PERITONITIS; VARICES;

ASCITES; CARCINOMA, HEPATOCELLULAR; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; DISEASE PROGRESSION; END STAGE LIVER DISEASE; ESOPHAGEAL AND GASTRIC VARICES; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY; HUMANS; LIVER; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER NEOPLASMS; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; MASS SCREENING; NEOPLASM STAGING;

EID: 84888039569     PISSN: 00257125     EISSN: 15579859     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mcna.2013.09.006     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Gines P., Quintero E., Arroyo V., et al. Compensated cirrhosis: natural history and prognostic factors. Hepatology 1987, 7:122-128.
2. Asrani S.K., Larson J.J., Yawn B., et al. Underestimation of liver-related mortality in the United States. Gastroenterology 2013, 145:375-382.e2.
3. Runyon B.A., AASLD Introduction to the revised American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Practice Guideline management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis 2012. Hepatology 2013, 57:1651-1653.
4. Planas R., Montoliu S., Balleste B., et al. Natural history of patients hospitalized for management of cirrhotic ascites. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006, 4:1385-1394.
5. Runyon B.A., Montano A.A., Akriviadis E.A., et al. The serum-ascites albumin gradient is superior to the exudate-transudate concept in the differential diagnosis of ascites. Ann Intern Med 1992, 117:215-220.
6. Runyon B.A. Paracentesis of ascitic fluid. A safe procedure. Arch Intern Med 1986, 146:2259-2261.
7. Grabau C.M., Crago S.F., Hoff L.K., et al. Performance standards for therapeutic abdominal paracentesis. Hepatology 2004, 40:484-488.
8. Runyon B.A., Canawati H.N., Akriviadis E.A. Optimization of ascitic fluid culture technique. Gastroenterology 1988, 95:1351-1355.
9. Runyon B.A., Antillon M.R., Akriviadis E.A., et al. Bedside inoculation of blood culture bottles with ascitic fluid is superior to delayed inoculation in the detection of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. JClin Microbiol 1990, 28:2811-2812.
10. Akriviadis E.A., Runyon B.A. Utility of an algorithm in differentiating spontaneous from secondary bacterial peritonitis. Gastroenterology 1990, 98:127-133.
11. Runyon B.A. Malignancy-related ascites and ascitic fluid "humoral tests of malignancy". JClin Gastroenterol 1994, 18:94-98.
12. Jeffries M.A., Stern M.A., Gunaratnam N.T., et al. Unsuspected infection is infrequent in asymptomatic outpatients with refractory ascites undergoing therapeutic paracentesis. Am J Gastroenterol 1999, 94:2972-2976.
13. Veldt B.J., Laine F., Guillygomarc'h A., et al. Indication of liver transplantation in severe alcoholic liver cirrhosis: quantitative evaluation and optimal timing. JHepatol 2002, 36:93-98.
14. Eisenmenger W.J., Ahrens E.H., Blondheim S.H., et al. The effect of rigid sodium restriction in patients with cirrhosis of the liver and ascites. JLab Clin Med 1949, 34:1029-1038.
15. Perez-Ayuso R.M., Arroyo V., Planas R., et al. Randomized comparative study of efficacy of furosemide versus spironolactone in nonazotemic cirrhosis with ascites. Relationship between the diuretic response and the activity of the renin-aldosterone system. Gastroenterology 1983, 84:961-968.
16. Santos J., Planas R., Pardo A., et al. Spironolactone alone or in combination with furosemide in the treatment of moderate ascites in nonazotemic cirrhosis. A randomized comparative study of efficacy and safety. JHepatol 2003, 39:187-192.
17. Angeli P., Fasolato S., Mazza E., et al. Combined versus sequential diuretic treatment of ascites in non-azotaemic patients with cirrhosis: results of an open randomised clinical trial. Gut 2010, 59:98-104.
18. Angeli P., Dalla Pria M., De Bei E., et al. Randomized clinical study of the efficacy of amiloride and potassium canrenoate in nonazotemic cirrhotic patients with ascites. Hepatology 1994, 19:72-79.
19. Pockros P.J., Reynolds T.B. Rapid diuresis in patients with ascites from chronic liver disease: the importance of peripheral edema. Gastroenterology 1986, 90:1827-1833.
20. Wong F., Watson H., Gerbes A., et al. Satavaptan for the management of ascites in cirrhosis: efficacy and safety across the spectrum of ascites severity. Gut 2012, 61:108-116.
21. Serste T., Melot C., Francoz C., et al. Deleterious effects of beta-blockers on survival in patients with cirrhosis and refractory ascites. Hepatology 2010, 52:1017-1022.
22. Serste T., Francoz C., Durand F., et al. Beta-blockers cause paracentesis-induced circulatory dysfunction in patients with cirrhosis and refractory ascites: a cross-over study. JHepatol 2011, 55:794-799.
23. Gines P., Arroyo V., Quintero E., et al. Comparison of paracentesis and diuretics in the treatment of cirrhotics with tense ascites. Results of a randomized study. Gastroenterology 1987, 93:234-241.
24. Peltekian K.M., Wong F., Liu P.P., et al. Cardiovascular, renal, and neurohumoral responses to single large-volume paracentesis in patients with cirrhosis and diuretic-resistant ascites. Am J Gastroenterol 1997, 92:394-399.
25. Tito L., Gines P., Arroyo V., et al. Total paracentesis associated with intravenous albumin management of patients with cirrhosis and ascites. Gastroenterology 1990, 98:146-151.
26. Stanley M.M., Ochi S., Lee K.K., et al. Peritoneovenous shunting as compared with medical treatment in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis and massive ascites. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study on Treatment of Alcoholic Cirrhosis with Ascites. NEngl J Med 1989, 321:1632-1638.
27. Guardiola J., Xiol X., Escriba J.M., et al. Prognosis assessment of cirrhotic patients with refractory ascites treated with a peritoneovenous shunt. Am J Gastroenterol 1995, 90:2097-2102.
28. Gines P., Arroyo V., Vargas V., et al. Paracentesis with intravenous infusion of albumin as compared with peritoneovenous shunting in cirrhosis with refractory ascites. NEngl J Med 1991, 325:829-835.
29. Heuman D.M., Abou-Assi S.G., Habib A., et al. Persistent ascites and low serum sodium identify patients with cirrhosis and low MELD scores who are at high risk for early death. Hepatology 2004, 40:802-810.
30. Baltz J.G., Argo C.K., Al-Osaimi A.M., et al. Mortality after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in patients with cirrhosis: a case series. Gastrointest Endosc 2010, 72:1072-1075.
31. Bernardi M., Caraceni P., Navickis R.J., et al. Albumin infusion in patients undergoing large-volume paracentesis: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Hepatology 2012, 55:1172-1181.
32. Salerno F., Camma C., Enea M., et al. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt for refractory ascites: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Gastroenterology 2007, 133:825-834.
33. Rossle M., Ochs A., Gulberg V., et al. Acomparison of paracentesis and transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting in patients with ascites. NEngl J Med 2000, 342:1701-1707.
34. Gines P., Uriz J., Calahorra B., et al. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting versus paracentesis plus albumin for refractory ascites in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 2002, 123:1839-1847.
35. Sanyal A.J., Genning C., Reddy K.R., et al. The North American study for the treatment of refractory ascites. Gastroenterology 2003, 124:634-641.
36. Salerno F., Merli M., Riggio O., et al. Randomized controlled study of TIPS versus paracentesis plus albumin in cirrhosis with severe ascites. Hepatology 2004, 40:629-635.
37. Boyer T.D., Haskal Z.J., American Association for the Study of Liver D The role of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) in the management of portal hypertension: update 2009. Hepatology 2010, 51:306.
38. Somberg K.A., Lake J.R., Tomlanovich S.J., et al. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts for refractory ascites: assessment of clinical and hormonal response and renal function. Hepatology 1995, 21:709-716.
39. Garcia-Tsao G. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a historical perspective. JHepatol 2004, 41:522-527.
40. Evans L.T., Kim W.R., Poterucha J.J., et al. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in asymptomatic outpatients with cirrhotic ascites. Hepatology 2003, 37:897-901.
41. Wong F., Bernardi M., Balk R., et al. Sepsis in cirrhosis: report on the 7th meeting of the International Ascites Club. Gut 2005, 54:718-725.
42. Rimola A., Garcia-Tsao G., Navasa M., et al. Diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a consensus document. International Ascites Club. JHepatol 2000, 32:142-153.
43. Borzio M., Salerno F., Piantoni L., et al. Bacterial infection in patients with advanced cirrhosis: a multicentre prospective study. Dig Liver Dis 2001, 33:41-48.
44. Hoefs J.C., Canawati H.N., Sapico F.L., et al. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Hepatology 1982, 2:399-407.
45. Runyon B.A., Hoefs J.C. Culture-negative neutrocytic ascites: a variant of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Hepatology 1984, 4:1209-1211.
46. Runyon B.A., Antillon M.R. Ascitic fluid pH and lactate: insensitive and nonspecific tests in detecting ascitic fluid infection. Hepatology 1991, 13:929-935.
47. Wu S.S., Lin O.S., Chen Y.Y., et al. Ascitic fluid carcinoembryonic antigen and alkaline phosphatase levels for the differentiation of primary from secondary bacterial peritonitis with intestinal perforation. JHepatol 2001, 34:215-221.
48. Runyon B.A., Akriviadis E.A., Sattler F.R., et al. Ascitic fluid and serum cefotaxime and desacetyl cefotaxime levels in patients treated for bacterial peritonitis. Dig Dis Sci 1991, 36:1782-1786.
49. Runyon B.A., McHutchison J.G., Antillon M.R., et al. Short-course versus long-course antibiotic treatment of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. A randomized controlled study of 100 patients. Gastroenterology 1991, 100:1737-1742.
50. Rimola A., Salmeron J.M., Clemente G., et al. Two different dosages of cefotaxime in the treatment of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis: results of a prospective, randomized, multicenter study. Hepatology 1995, 21:674-679.
51. Ricart E., Soriano G., Novella M.T., et al. Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid versus cefotaxime in the therapy of bacterial infections in cirrhotic patients. JHepatol 2000, 32:596-602.
52. Navasa M., Follo A., Llovet J.M., et al. Randomized, comparative study of oral ofloxacin versus intravenous cefotaxime in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Gastroenterology 1996, 111:1011-1017.
53. Sort P., Navasa M., Arroyo V., et al. Effect of intravenous albumin on renal impairment and mortality in patients with cirrhosis and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. NEngl J Med 1999, 341:403-409.
54. Sigal S.H., Stanca C.M., Fernandez J., et al. Restricted use of albumin for spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Gut 2007, 56:597-599.
55. Gines P., Rimola A., Planas R., et al. Norfloxacin prevents spontaneous bacterial peritonitis recurrence in cirrhosis: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Hepatology 1990, 12:716-724.
56. Runyon B.A. Low-protein-concentration ascitic fluid is predisposed to spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Gastroenterology 1986, 91:1343-1346.
57. Garcia-Tsao G. Current management of the complications of cirrhosis and portal hypertension: variceal hemorrhage, ascites, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Gastroenterology 2001, 120:726-748.
58. Soriano G., Guarner C., Teixido M., et al. Selective intestinal decontamination prevents spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Gastroenterology 1991, 100:477-481.
59. Singh N., Gayowski T., Yu V.L., et al. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for the prevention of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in cirrhosis: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 1995, 122:595-598.
60. Rolachon A., Cordier L., Bacq Y., et al. Ciprofloxacin and long-term prevention of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: results of a prospective controlled trial. Hepatology 1995, 22:1171-1174.
61. Terg R., Llano K., Cobas S.M., et al. Effects of oral ciprofloxacin on aerobic gram-negative fecal flora in patients with cirrhosis: results of short- and long-term administration, with daily and weekly dosages. JHepatol 1998, 29:437-442.
62. Deschenes M., Villeneuve J.P. Risk factors for the development of bacterial infections in hospitalized patients with cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 1999, 94:2193-2197.
63. Bernard B., Grange J.D., Khac E.N., et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of bacterial infections in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal bleeding: a meta-analysis. Hepatology 1999, 29:1655-1661.
64. Soriano G., Guarner C., Tomas A., et al. Norfloxacin prevents bacterial infection in cirrhotics with gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Gastroenterology 1992, 103:1267-1272.
65. Blaise M., Pateron D., Trinchet J.C., et al. Systemic antibiotic therapy prevents bacterial infection in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Hepatology 1994, 20:34-38.
66. Fernandez J., Ruiz del Arbol L., Gomez C., et al. Norfloxacin vs ceftriaxone in the prophylaxis of infections in patients with advanced cirrhosis and hemorrhage. Gastroenterology 2006, 131:1049-1056. [quiz: 285].
67. Angeli P., Wong F., Watson H., et al. Hyponatremia in cirrhosis: results of a patient population survey. Hepatology 2006, 44:1535-1542.
68. Biggins S.W., Rodriguez H.J., Bacchetti P., et al. Serum sodium predicts mortality in patients listed for liver transplantation. Hepatology 2005, 41:32-39.
69. Ruf A.E., Kremers W.K., Chavez L.L., et al. Addition of serum sodium into the MELD score predicts waiting list mortality better than MELD alone. Liver Transpl 2005, 11:336-343.
70. Montoliu S., Balleste B., Planas R., et al. Incidence and prognosis of different types of functional renal failure in cirrhotic patients with ascites. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010, 8:616-622. [quiz: e80].
71. Salerno F., Gerbes A., Gines P., et al. Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. Gut 2007, 56:1310-1318.
72. Gines P., Guevara M., Arroyo V., et al. Hepatorenal syndrome. Lancet 2003, 362:1819-1827.
73. Wong F. Recent advances in our understanding of hepatorenal syndrome. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012, 9:382-391.
74. Sanyal A.J., Boyer T., Garcia-Tsao G., et al. Arandomized, prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of terlipressin for type 1 hepatorenal syndrome. Gastroenterology 2008, 134:1360-1368.
75. Martin-Llahi M., Pepin M.N., Guevara M., et al. Terlipressin and albumin vs albumin in patients with cirrhosis and hepatorenal syndrome: a randomized study. Gastroenterology 2008, 134:1352-1359.
76. Esrailian E., Pantangco E.R., Kyulo N.L., et al. Octreotide/midodrine therapy significantly improves renal function and 30-day survival in patients with type 1 hepatorenal syndrome. Dig Dis Sci 2007, 52:742-748.
77. Belghiti J., Durand F. Abdominal wall hernias in the setting of cirrhosis. Semin Liver Dis 1997, 17:219-226.
78. Runyon B.A., Juler G.L. Natural history of repaired umbilical hernias in patients with and without ascites. Am J Gastroenterol 1985, 80:38-39.
79. Triantos C.K., Kehagias I., Nikolopoulou V., et al. Surgical repair of umbilical hernias in cirrhosis with ascites. Am J Med Sci 2011, 341:222-226.
80. Xiol X., Castellote J., Cortes-Beut R., et al. Usefulness and complications of thoracentesis in cirrhotic patients. Am J Med 2001, 111:67-69.
81. Xiol X., Castellvi J.M., Guardiola J., et al. Spontaneous bacterial empyema in cirrhotic patients: a prospective study. Hepatology 1996, 23:719-723.
82. Runyon B.A., Greenblatt M., Ming R.H. Hepatic hydrothorax is a relative contraindication to chest tube insertion. Am J Gastroenterol 1986, 81:566-567.
83. Orman E.S., Lok A.S. Outcomes of patients with chest tube insertion for hepatic hydrothorax. Hepatol Int 2009, 3:582-586.
84. Groszmann R.J., Wongcharatrawee S. The hepatic venous pressure gradient: anything worth doing should be done right. Hepatology 2004, 39:280-282.
85. Groszmann R.J., Garcia-Tsao G., Bosch J., et al. Beta-blockers to prevent gastroesophageal varices in patients with cirrhosis. NEngl J Med 2005, 353:2254-2261.
86. Merli M., Nicolini G., Angeloni S., et al. Incidence and natural history of small esophageal varices in cirrhotic patients. JHepatol 2003, 38:266-272.
87. Garcia-Tsao G., Sanyal A.J., Grace N.D., Practice Guidelines Committee of the American Association for the Study of Liver Disease, Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology, et al. Prevention and management of gastroesophageal varices and variceal hemorrhage in cirrhosis. Hepatology 2007, 46:922-938.
88. de Franchis R., Pascal J.P., Ancona E., et al. Definitions, methodology and therapeutic strategies in portal hypertension. A Consensus Development Workshop, Baveno, Lake Maggiore, Italy, April 5 and 6, 1990. JHepatol 1992, 15:256-261.
89. de Franchis R. Updating consensus in portal hypertension: report of the Baveno III Consensus Workshop on definitions, methodology and therapeutic strategies in portal hypertension. JHepatol 2000, 33:846-852.
90. North Italian Endoscopic Club for the S, Treatment of Esophageal V Prediction of the first variceal hemorrhage in patients with cirrhosis of the liver and esophageal varices. A prospective multicenter study. NEngl J Med 1988, 319:983-989.
91. Merkel C., Marin R., Angeli P., et al. Aplacebo-controlled clinical trial of nadolol in the prophylaxis of growth of small esophageal varices in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 2004, 127:476-484.
92. Gluud L.L., Krag A. Banding ligation versus beta-blockers for primary prevention in oesophageal varices in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012, (8). CD004544.
93. Tripathi D., Ferguson J.W., Kochar N., et al. Randomized controlled trial of carvedilol versus variceal band ligation for the prevention of the first variceal bleed. Hepatology 2009, 50:825-833.
94. D'Amico G., Pagliaro L., Bosch J. Pharmacological treatment of portal hypertension: an evidence-based approach. Semin Liver Dis 1999, 19:475-505.
95. D'Amico G., De Franchis R., Cooperative Study G. Upper digestive bleeding in cirrhosis. Post-therapeutic outcome and prognostic indicators. Hepatology 2003, 38:599-612.
96. Villanueva C., Colomo A., Bosch A., et al. Transfusion strategies for acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding. NEngl J Med 2013, 368:11-21.
97. Ioannou G., Doust J., Rockey D.C. Terlipressin for acute esophageal variceal hemorrhage. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003, (1). CD002147.
98. Banares R., Albillos A., Rincon D., et al. Endoscopic treatment versus endoscopic plus pharmacologic treatment for acute variceal bleeding: a meta-analysis. Hepatology 2002, 35:609-615.
99. de Franchis R., Baveno V.F. Revising consensus in portal hypertension: report of the Baveno V consensus workshop on methodology of diagnosis and therapy in portal hypertension. JHepatol 2010, 53:762-768.
100. Monescillo A., Martinez-Lagares F., Ruiz-del-Arbol L., et al. Influence of portal hypertension and its early decompression by TIPS placement on the outcome of variceal bleeding. Hepatology 2004, 40:793-801.
101. Garcia-Pagan J.C., Caca K., Bureau C., et al. Early use of TIPS in patients with cirrhosis and variceal bleeding. NEngl J Med 2010, 362:2370-2379.
102. Lo G.H., Lai K.H., Cheng J.S., et al. Aprospective, randomized trial of butyl cyanoacrylate injection versus band ligation in the management of bleeding gastric varices. Hepatology 2001, 33:1060-1064.
103. Tan P.C., Hou M.C., Lin H.C., et al. Arandomized trial of endoscopic treatment of acute gastric variceal hemorrhage: N-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate injection versus band ligation. Hepatology 2006, 43:690-697.
104. Chau T.N., Patch D., Chan Y.W., et al. "Salvage" transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts: gastric fundal compared with esophageal variceal bleeding. Gastroenterology 1998, 114:981-987.
105. Bosch J., Garcia-Pagan J.C. Prevention of variceal rebleeding. Lancet 2003, 361:952-954.
106. Gournay J., Masliah C., Martin T., et al. Isosorbide mononitrate and propranolol compared with propranolol alone for the prevention of variceal rebleeding. Hepatology 2000, 31:1239-1245.
107. Laine L., Cook D. Endoscopic ligation compared with sclerotherapy for treatment of esophageal variceal bleeding. A meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 1995, 123:280-287.
108. Lo G.H., Lai K.H., Cheng J.S., et al. Endoscopic variceal ligation plus nadolol and sucralfate compared with ligation alone for the prevention of variceal rebleeding: a prospective, randomized trial. Hepatology 2000, 32:461-465.
109. de la Pena J., Brullet E., Sanchez-Hernandez E., et al. Variceal ligation plus nadolol compared with ligation for prophylaxis of variceal rebleeding: a multicenter trial. Hepatology 2005, 41:572-578.
110. Gonzalez R., Zamora J., Gomez-Camarero J., et al. Meta-analysis: combination endoscopic and drug therapy to prevent variceal rebleeding in cirrhosis. Ann Intern Med 2008, 149:109-122.
111. Escorsell A., Banares R., Garcia-Pagan J.C., et al. TIPS versus drug therapy in preventing variceal rebleeding in advanced cirrhosis: a randomized controlled trial. Hepatology 2002, 35:385-392.
112. Prakash R., Mullen K.D. Mechanisms, diagnosis and management of hepatic encephalopathy. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010, 7:515-525.
113. Poordad F.F. Review article: the burden of hepatic encephalopathy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007, 25(Suppl 1):3-9.
114. Conn H.O., Leevy C.M., Vlahcevic Z.R., et al. Comparison of lactulose and neomycin in the treatment of chronic portal-systemic encephalopathy. A double blind controlled trial. Gastroenterology 1977, 72:573-583.
115. Ong J.P., Aggarwal A., Krieger D., et al. Correlation between ammonia levels and the severity of hepatic encephalopathy. Am J Med 2003, 114:188-193.
116. Kramer L., Tribl B., Gendo A., et al. Partial pressure of ammonia versus ammonia in hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatology 2000, 31:30-34.
117. Weissenborn K., Ennen J.C., Schomerus H., et al. Neuropsychological characterization of hepatic encephalopathy. JHepatol 2001, 34:768-773.
118. Blei A.T., Cordoba J., Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology Hepatic encephalopathy. Am J Gastroenterol 2001, 96:1968-1976.
119. Morgan M.Y., Hawley K.E., Stambuk D. Lactitol versus lactulose in the treatment of chronic hepatic encephalopathy. A double-blind, randomised, cross-over study. JHepatol 1987, 4:236-244.
120. Morgan M.Y., Hawley K.E. Lactitol vs. lactulose in the treatment of acute hepatic encephalopathy in cirrhotic patients: a double-blind, randomized trial. Hepatology 1987, 7:1278-1284.
121. Morgan M.Y., Alonso M., Stanger L.C. Lactitol and lactulose for the treatment of subclinical hepatic encephalopathy in cirrhotic patients. A randomised, cross-over study. JHepatol 1989, 8:208-217.
122. Als-Nielsen B., Gluud L.L., Gluud C. Non-absorbable disaccharides for hepatic encephalopathy: systematic review of randomised trials. BMJ 2004, 328:1046.
123. Agrawal A., Sharma B.C., Sharma P., et al. Secondary prophylaxis of hepatic encephalopathy in cirrhosis: an open-label, randomized controlled trial of lactulose, probiotics, and no therapy. Am J Gastroenterol 2012, 107:1043-1050.
124. Bass N.M., Mullen K.D., Sanyal A., et al. Rifaximin treatment in hepatic encephalopathy. NEngl J Med 2010, 362:1071-1081.
125. Cordoba J., Lopez-Hellin J., Planas M., et al. Normal protein diet for episodic hepatic encephalopathy: results of a randomized study. JHepatol 2004, 41:38-43.
126. Plauth M., Cabre E., Riggio O., et al. ESPEN guidelines on enteral nutrition: liver disease. Clin Nutr 2006, 25:285-294.
127. Altekruse S.F., McGlynn K.A., Reichman M.E. Hepatocellular carcinoma incidence, mortality, and survival trends in the United States from 1975 to 2005. JClin Oncol 2009, 27:1485-1491.
128. Bruix J., Sherman M., American Association for the Study of Liver Disease Management of hepatocellular carcinoma: an update. Hepatology 2011, 53:1020-1022.
129. El-Serag H.B. Hepatocellular carcinoma. NEngl J Med 2011, 365:1118-1127.
130. Cha C.H., Ruo L., Fong Y., et al. Resection of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients otherwise eligible for transplantation. Ann Surg 2003, 238:315-321. [discussion: 21-3].
131. Pelletier S.J., Fu S., Thyagarajan V., et al. An intention-to-treat analysis of liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma using organ procurement transplant network data. Liver Transpl 2009, 15:859-868.
132. Annual Report of the U.S Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network and the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients: transplant data 1994-2003 2004, Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Service Administration, Healthcare Systems Bureau, Division of Transplantation; United Network for Organ Sharing; University Renal Research and Education Association, Rockville (MD), Richmond (VA), Ann Arbor (MI).
133. Child C.I., Turcotte J. Surgery and portal hypertension. The liver and portal hypertension 1964, 50. WB Saunders, Philadelphia. C.I. Child (Ed.).
134. Pugh R.N., Murray-Lyon I.M., Dawson J.L., et al. Transection of the oesophagus for bleeding oesophageal varices. Br J Surg 1973, 60:646-649.
135. Malinchoc M., Kamath P.S., Gordon F.D., et al. Amodel to predict poor survival in patients undergoing transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts. Hepatology 2000, 31:864-871.
136. Oellerich M., Burdelski M., Lautz H.U., et al. Predictors of one-year pretransplant survival in patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology 1991, 14:1029-1034.
137. Propst A., Propst T., Zangerl G., et al. Prognosis and life expectancy in chronic liver disease. Dig Dis Sci 1995, 40:1805-1815.
138. Infante-Rivard C., Esnaola S., Villeneuve J.P. Clinical and statistical validity of conventional prognostic factors in predicting short-term survival among cirrhotics. Hepatology 1987, 7:660-664.
139. Lucey M.R., Brown K.A., Everson G.T., et al. Minimal criteria for placement of adults on the liver transplant waiting list: a report of a national conference organized by the American Society of Transplant Physicians and the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Liver Transpl Surg 1997, 3:628-637.
140. Kamath P.S., Wiesner R.H., Malinchoc M., et al. Amodel to predict survival in patients with end-stage liver disease. Hepatology 2001, 33:464-470.
141. Wiesner R., Edwards E., Freeman R., et al. Model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) and allocation of donor livers. Gastroenterology 2003, 124:91-96.
142. Freeman R.B., Wiesner R.H., Edwards E., et al. Results of the first year of the new liver allocation plan. Liver Transpl 2004, 10:7-15.
143. Murray K.F., Carithers R.L., AASLD AASLD practice guidelines: evaluation of the patient for liver transplantation. Hepatology 2005, 41:1407-1432.
144. Fattovich G., Giustina G., Degos F., et al. Morbidity and mortality in compensated cirrhosis type C: a retrospective follow-up study of 384 patients. Gastroenterology 1997, 112:463-472.
145. D'Amico G., Garcia-Tsao G., Pagliaro L. Natural history and prognostic indicators of survival in cirrhosis: a systematic review of 118 studies. JHepatol 2006, 44:217-231.
146. Dienstag J.L., Ghany M.G., Morgan T.R., et al. Aprospective study of the rate of progression in compensated, histologically advanced chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 2011, 54:396-405.