DIRECT HEAT-TO-ELECTRICITY CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY

Annual Review of Heat Transfer

Volumn 15, Issue , 2012, Pages 179-230

  McEnaney, Kenneth ^a   Kraemer, Daniel ^a   Chen, Gang ^a  

^a Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER; POWER GENERATION; SOLAR ENERGY; SOLAR POWER GENERATION;

ELECTRICITY SYSTEM; ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS; MECHANICAL MOTIONS; PHOTOVOLTAICS; SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSIONS; SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS; SOLAR THERMAL; THERMAL INPUTS; THERMOELECTRIC; WORKING FLUID;

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION;

EID: 84887929393     PISSN: 10490787     EISSN: 23750294     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1615/AnnualRevHeatTransfer.2012004544     Document Type: Chapter

References (283)

1. W. Shockley and H. J. Queisser, Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells, J. Appl. Phys., 32(3):510-519, 1961.
2. M. A. Green, Third Generation Photovoltaics, Springer, Berlin, 2005.
3. H. J. Goldsmid, Applications of Thermoelectricity, Methuen and Co., London, 1960.
4. G. N. Hatsopoulos and E. P. Gyftopoulos, Thermionic Energy Conversion, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1973.
5. T. Murakami and Y. Okuno, High-density energy conversion using compact magnetohydrodynamic electrical power generator, Appl. Phys. Lett., 91(16):161506, 2007.
6. J. D. Childress, Application of a ferroelectric material in an energy conversion device, J. Appl. Phys., 33(5):1793-1798, 1962.
7. R. B. Olsen, D. A. Bruno, and J. M. Briscoe, Pyroelectric conversion cycles, J. Appl. Phys., 58(12):4709-4716, 1985.
8. J. F. Elliott, Thermomagnetic generator, J. Appl. Phys., 30(11):1774-1777, 1959.
9. T. Cole, Thermoelectric energy conversion with solid electrolytes, Science, 221(4614):915-920, 1983.
10. D. Kraemer, K. McEnaney, M. Chiesa, and G. Chen, Modeling and optimization of solar thermoelectric generators for terrestrial applications, Sol. Energy, 86:1338-1350, 2012.
11. R. Winston, Light collection within the framework of geometrical optics, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 60(2):245-247, 1970.
12. A. Rabl, Comparison of solar concentrators, Sol. Energy, 18(2):93-111, 1976.
13. W. Short, D. J. Packey, and T. Holt, A manual for the economic evaluation of energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies, Technical Report TP-462-5173, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, March 1995.
14. K. Branker, M. J. M. Pathak, and J. M. Pearce, A review of solar photovoltaic levelized cost of electricity, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., 15(9):4470-4482, 2011.
15. H. Tabor, Solar energy collector design, Bull. Res. Counc. Isr., 5C(1):5-27, 1955.
16. K. McEnaney, Modeling of Solar Thermal Selective Surfaces and Thermoelectric Generators, Master's Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2010.
17. M. Florescu, H. Lee, I. Puscasu, M. Pralle, L. Florescu, D. Z. Ting, and J. P. Dowling, Improving solar cell efficiency using photonic band-gap materials, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 91(17):1599-1610, 2007.
18. C. A. Domenicali, Irreversible thermodynamics of thermoelectric effects in inhomogeneous, anisotropic media, Phys. Rev., 92(4):877-881, 1953.
19. A. F. Ioffe, Semiconductor Thermoelements and Thermoelectric Cooling, Infosearch Ltd., London, 1957.
20. H. J. Goldsmid, J. E. Giutronich, and M. M. Kaila, Solar thermoelectric generation using bismuth telluride alloys, Sol. Energy, 24(5):435-440, 1980.
21. J. C. A. Peltier, Nouvelles expériences sur la caloricité des courans électriques, Ann. Chim. Phys., 56:371-386, 1834.
22. W. Thomson, On a mechanical theory of thermo-electric currents, in Proc. of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, December 1851.
23. W. Thomson, A mechanical theory of thermo-electric currents in crystalline solids, in Proc. of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, May 1854.
24. J. G. Morse, Energy for remote areas, Science, 139(3560):1175-1180, 1963.
25. R. Alimov, Radioisotope thermoelectric generator, Retrieved October 1, 2011, http://bellona.no/bellona.org/english import area/international/russia/navy/northern fleet/incidents/37598.
26. D. M. Rowe, Thermoelectrics, an environmentally-friendly source of electrical power, Renewable Energy, 16(1-4):1251-1256, 1999.
27. J. Yang, Potential applications of thermoelectric waste heat recovery in the automotive industry, in 24th Int. Conf. Thermoelectrics, pp. 170-174, Clemson, SC, USA, June 19-23, 2005.
28. M. Telkes, The efficiency of thermoelectric generators. I, J. Appl. Phys., 18(12):1116-1127, 1947.
29. D. M. Rowe and G. Min, Evaluation of thermoelectric modules for power generation, J. Power Sources, 73(2):193-198, 1998.
30. E. Altenkirch, Elektrothermische kälteerzeugung und reversible elektrische heizung, Phys. Z., 12:920-924, 1911.
31. F. J. DiSalvo, Thermoelectric cooling and power generation, Science, 285(5428):703-706, 1999.
32. L. E. Bell, Cooling, heating, generating power, and recovering waste heat with thermoelectric systems, Science, 321(5895):1457-1461, 2008.
33. G. J. Snyder and E. S. Toberer, Complex thermoelectric materials, Nat. Mater., 7:105-114, 2008.
34. H. J. Goldsmid and R. W. Douglas, The use of semiconductors in thermoelectric refrigeration, Br. J. Appl. Phys., 5(11):386-390, 1954.
35. H. J. Goldsmid, Principles of thermoelectric devices, Br. J. Appl. Phys., 11(6):209-217, 1960.
36. A. J. Minnich, M. S. Dresselhaus, Z. F. Ren, and G. Chen, Bulk nanostructured thermoelectric materials: current research and future prospects, Energy Env. Sci., 2:466-479, 2009.
37. J. R. Sootsman, D. Y. Chung, and M. G. Kanatzidis, New and old concepts in thermoelectric materials, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 48(46):8616-8639, 2009.
38. M. Zebarjadi, K. Esfarjani, M. S. Dresselhaus, Z. F. Ren, and G. Chen, Perspectives on thermoelectrics: From fundamentals to device applications, Energy Environ. Sci., 5:5147-5162, 2012.
39. E. Weston, US Patent no. 389,124, issued Sept. 4, 1888.
40. E. Weston, US Patent no. 389,125, issued Sept. 4, 1888.
41. M. L. Severy, US Patent no. 527,377, issued Oct. 9, 1894.
42. M. L. Severy, US Patent no. 527,379, issued Oct. 9, 1894.
43. H. C. Reagan, Jr., US Patent no. 588,177, issued Aug. 17, 1897.
44. H. F. Cottle, US Patent no. 608,755, issued Aug. 9, 1898.
45. R. H. Dunn, G.B. Patent no. 14,033, issued June 2, 1900.
46. A. R. Bennett, G.B. Patent no. 18,672, issued July 25, 1912.
47. W. W. Coblentz, US Patent no. 1,077,219, issued Oct. 28, 1913.
48. P. Kirkpatrick, Electric power from sunlight, Sci. Am., 122(25):677, 1920.
49. W. W. Coblentz, Harnessing heat from the sun, Sci. Am., 127(5):324, 1922.
50. M. Telkes, Solar thermoelectric generators, J. Appl. Phys., 25(6):765-777, 1954.
51. N. F. Schuh and R. J. Tallent, Solar-powered thermoelectric generator design considerations, Electr. Eng., 78:345-352, 1959.
52. A. N. Himle, D. S. Brush, J. B. Roes, and E. L. Brady, Flat-plate solar thermoelectric conversion panels, Technical Report ASD-TDR-62-214, General Atomic Division of General Dynamics Corporation, May 1962.
53. G. W. Glassburn, Flat plate solar thermoelectric generator orbital experiment, IEEE Trans. Aerosp., 1(2):1396-1403, 1963.
54. R. Rush, Solar flat plate thermoelectric generator research, Technical Report, General Instrument Corporation, June 1963.
55. R. Rush, Solar flat plate thermoelectric generator research, Technical Report APL TDR 64-87, General Instrument Corporation, Sept. 1964.
56. P. E. Kueser, J. L. McCabria, and D. A. Naumer, Experimental results from a solar heated thermoelectric generator utilizing thermal energy storage, IEEE Trans. Aerosp., 2(2):675-681, 1964.
57. R. Lang and B. T. Lubin, A basic solar thermoelectric power unit seeking experimental and theoretical performance agreement, Aerosp. Eng., 21(2):6-15, 1962.
58. N. Fuschillo, R. Gibson, and F. K. Eggleston, Theory and performance of flat plate solar thermoelectric generator for near-earth orbits, in Supplement to IEEE Trans. Aerosp., Proc. of the Aerospace Technical Conf. and Exhibit, pp. 652-663, Houston, TX, June 1965.
59. F. K. Eggleston and N. Fuschillo, Fabrication of flat plate solar thermoelectric generator panels for near-earth orbits, in Supplement to IEEE Trans. Aerosp., Proc. of the Aerospace Technical Conf. and Exhibit, pp. 674-680, Houston, TX, June 1965.
60. R. D. Gibson and N. Fuschillo, Flat plate solar thermoelectric generator design analysis, in Supplement to IEEE Trans. Aerosp., Proc. of the Aerospace Technical Conf. and Exhibit, pp. 664-673, Houston, TX, June 1965.
61. J. Black, F. K. Eggleston, and N. Fuschillo, Thermoelectric bond development for the flat plate solar thermoelectric generator, in Supplement to IEEE Trans. Aerosp., Proc. of the Aerospace Technical Conf. and Exhibit, pp. 681-686, Houston, TX, June 1965.
62. N. Fuschillo, R. Gibson, F. K. Eggleston, and J. Epstein, Flat plate solar thermoelectric generator for near-earth orbits, Adv. Energy Conver., 6(2):103-118, IN3-IN6, 119-125, 1966.
63. N. Fuschillo and R. Gibson, Germanium-silicon, lead telluride, and bismuth telluride alloy solar thermoelectric generators for venus and mercury probes, Adv. Energy Conver., 7(1):43-52, 1967.
64. V. Raag, R. E. Berlin, and L. H. Gnau, Solar thermoelectric generator design and panel development program, Technical Report CR-72340, NASA, December 1967.
65. M. Swerdling and V. Raag, Solar thermoelectric power generation for Mercury orbiter missions, J. Energy, 3(5):291-298, 1979.
66. P. Poinas, L. Vikhor, B. Lenoir, A. Dauscher, and H. Scherrer, Solar thermoelectric generators based on advanced thermoelectric materials, in Proc. of the Twenty-First International Conference on Thermoelectrics, pp. 395-399, Long Beach, CA, USA, August 2002.
67. B. Lenoir, A. Dauscher, P. Poinas, H. Scherrer, and L. Vikhor, Electrical performance of skutterudites solar thermoelectric generators, Appl. Therm. Eng., 23(11):1407-1415, 2003.
68. H. Scherrer, L. Vikhor, B. Lenoir, A. Dauscher, and P. Poinas, Solar thermolectric generator based on skutterudites, J. Power Sources, 115(1):141-148, 2003.
69. E. A. Movsumov and A. M. Bairamov, Regime characteristics of a solar thermoelectric generator and comparison of experimental and calculated data, Geliotekhnika, 16(6):69-70, 1980.
70. D. M. Rowe, A high performance solar powered thermoelectric generator, Appl. Energy, 8(4):269-273, 1981.
71. C. L. Dent and M. H. Cobble, a solar thermoelectric generator and analysis, in Proc. of the Fourth International Conference on Thermoelectric Energy Conversion, pp. 75-78, Arlington, TX, 1982.
72. N. S. Lidorenko, O. P. Astakhov, and N. V. Kolomoets, Research on solar thermoelectric cells with a flat plate collector, Geliotekhnika, 20(3):7-9, 1984.
73. J. Chen, Thermodynamic analysis of a solar-driven thermoelectric generator, J. Appl. Phys., 79(5):2717-2721, 1996.
74. S. A. Omer and D. G. Infield, Design optimization of thermoelectric devices for solar power generation, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 53(1-2):67-82, 1998.
75. C. A. Mgbemene, J. Duffy, H. Sun, and S. O. Onyegegbu, Electricity generation from a compound parabolic concentrator coupled to a thermoelectric module, ASME Conf. Proc., 2008(43208):423-432, 2008.
76. H. Fan, R. Singh, and A. Akbarzadeh, Electric power generation from thermoelectric cells using a solar dish concentrator, J. Electr. Mater., 40:1311-1320, 2011.
77. P. Tomeš, R. Robert, L. Bocher, M. Trottmann, M. H. Aguirre, and A. Weidenkaff, Direct conversion of simulated solar radiation into electrical energy by a perovskite thermoelectric oxide module (TOM), in Proc. of the Materials Science and Technology Conf., pp. 429-435, Pittsburgh, PA, 2008.
78. C. Suter, P. Tomeš, A. Weidenkaff, and A. Steinfeld, Heat transfer and geometrical analysis of thermoelectric converters driven by concentrated solar radiation, Materials, 3(4):2735-2752, 2010.
79. P. Tomeš, M. Trottmann, C. Suter, M. H. Aguirre, A. Steinfeld, P. Haueter, and A. Weidenkaff, Thermoelectric oxide modules (TOMs) for the direct conversion of simulated solar radiation into electrical energy, Materials, 3(4):2801-2814, 2010.
80. C. Suter, P. Tomeš, A. Weidenkaff, and A. Steinfeld, A solar cavity-receiver packed with an array of thermoelectric converter modules, Sol. Energy, 85(7):1511-1518, 2011.
81. P. Tomeš, C. Suter, M. Trottmann, A. Steinfeld, and A. Weidenkaff, Thermoelectric oxide modules tested in a solar cavity-receiver, J. Mater. Res., 26(15):1975-1982, 2011.
82. M. Xie and D. M. Gruen, Potential impact of ZT = 4 thermoelectric materials on solar thermal energy conversion technologies, J. Phys. Chem. B, 114(45):14339-14342, 2010.
83. N. Vatcharasathien, J. Hirunlabh, J. Khedari, and M. Daguenet, Design and analysis of solar thermoelectric power generation system, Int. J. Sustainable Energy, 24:115-127, 2005.
84. S. Maneewan, J. Khedari, B. Zeghmati, J. Hirunlabh, and J. Eakburanawat, Investigation on generated power of thermoelectric roof solar collector, Renewable Energy, 29(5):743-752, 2004.
85. S. Maneewan, J. Hirunlabh, J. Khedari, B. Zeghmati, and S. Teekasap, Heat gain reduction by means of thermoelectric roof solar collector, Sol. Energy, 78(4):495-503, 2005.
86. A. Agbossou, Q. Zhang, G. Sebald, and D. Guyomar, Solar micro-energy harvesting based on thermoelectric and latent heat effects. Part I: Theoretical analysis, Sens. Actuators, A, 163(1):277-283, 2010.
87. Q. Zhang, A. Agbossou, Z. Feng, and M. Cosnier, Solar micro-energy harvesting based on thermoelectric and latent heat effects. Part II: Experimental analysis, Sens. Actuators, A, 163(1):284-290, 2010.
88. R. Amatya and R. Ram, Solar thermoelectric generator for micropower applications, J. Electron. Mater., 39:1735-1740, 2010.
89. R. Singh, S. Tundee, and A. Akbarzadeh, Electric power generation from solar pond using combined thermosyphon and thermoelectric modules, Sol. Energy, 85(2):371-378, 2011.
90. T. Ohta, S. Asakura, M. Yamaguchi, N. Kamiya, N. Gotgh, and T. Otagawa, Photochemical and thermoelectric utilization of solar energy in a hybrid water-splitting system, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 1(2):113-116, 1976.
91. G. J. Vella, L. B. Harris, and H. J. Goldsmid, A solar thermoelectric refrigerator, Sol. Energy, 18(4):355-359, 1976.
92. S. O. Onyegegbu, Performance of a modulated solar thermoelectric cooler, Energy Conver. Manag., 22(1):39-46, 1982.
93. A. S. Roberts Jr. and K. E. Shaheen, Hybrid thermoelectric solar collector design and analysis, J. Sol. Energy Eng., 104(4):373-377, 1982.
94. G. Rockendorf, R. Sillmann, L. Podlowski, and B. Litzenburger, PV-hybrid and thermoelectric collectors, Sol. Energy, 67(4-6):227-237, 1999.
95. D. Kraemer, L. Hu, A. Muto, X. Chen, G. Chen, and M. Chiesa, Photovoltaic-thermoelectric hybrid systems: A general optimization methodology, Appl. Phys. Lett., 92:243503, 2008.
96. A. Y. Ender, V. I. Kuznetsov, V. I. Sitnov, E. M. Kushner, E. P. Malamed, and D. V. Paramonov, Terrestrial solar power system based on Cs-Ba thermionic converter, AIP Conf. Proc., 458(1):1408-1412, 1999.
97. R. C. Schlichtig and J. A. Morris, Jr., Thermoelectric and mechanical conversion of solar power, Sol. Energy, 3(2):14-18, 1959.
98. A. Luque and A. Martí, Limiting efficiency of coupled thermal and photovoltaic converters, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 58(2):147-165, 1999.
99. G. Chen, Theoretical efficiency of solar thermoelectric generators (STEGs), J. Appl. Phys., 109:104908, 2011.
100. D. Kraemer, B. Poudel, H.-P. Feng, J. C. Caylor, B. Yu, X. Yan, Y. Ma, X. W. Wang, D. Z. Wang, A. Muto, K. McEnaney, M. Chiesa, Z. F. Ren, and G. Chen, High-performance flat-panel solar thermoelectric generators with large thermal concentration, Nat. Mater., 10:532-538, 2011.
101. P. Li, L. Cai, P. Zhai, X. Tang, Q. Zhang, and M. Niino, Design of a concentration solar thermoelectric generator, J. Electr. Mater., 39:1522-1530, 2010.
102. K. McEnaney, D. Kraemer, Z. F. Ren, and G. Chen, Modeling of concentrating solar thermoelectric generators, J. Appl. Phys., 110(7):074502, 2011.
103. C. E. Kennedy, Review of mid- to high-temperature solar selective absorber materials, Technical Report TP-520-31267, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, July 2002.
104. K. P. Suleebka, High temperature solar thermoelectric generator, Appl. Energy, 5(1):53-59, 1979.
105. A.-E. Becquerel, Recherches sur les effets de la radiation chimique de la lumière solaire, au moyen des courants électriques, C.R. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci., 9:145-149, 1839.
106. R. S. Ohl, US Patent no. 2,402,662, issued June 25, 1946.
107. D. M. Chapin, C. S. Fuller, and G. L. Pearson, A new silicon p-n junction photocell for converting solar radiation into electrical power, J. Appl. Phys., 25(5):676-677, 1954.
108. S. E. Han and G. Chen, Toward the Lambertian limit of light trapping in thin nanostructured silicon solar cells, Nano Lett., 10(11):4692-4696, 2010.
109. T. M. Razykov, C. S. Ferekides, D. Morel, E. Stefanakos, H. S. Ullal, and H. M. Upadhyaya, Solar photovoltaic electricity: Current status and future prospects, Sol. Energy, 85(8):1580-1608, 2011.
110. J. J. Loferski, Theoretical considerations governing the choice of the optimum semiconductor for photovoltaic solar energy conversion, J. Appl. Phys., 27(7):777-784, 1956.
111. C. H. Henry, Limiting efficiencies of ideal single and multiple energy gap terrestrial solar cells, J. Appl. Phys., 51(8):4494-4500, 1980.
112. A. De Vos and H. Pauwels, On the thermodynamic limit of photovoltaic energy conversion, Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Proc., 25:119-125, 1981.
113. A. J. Nozik, Spectroscopy and hot electron relaxation dynamics in semiconductor quantum wells and quantum dots, Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem., 52(1):193-231, 2001.
114. R. D. Schaller, M. Sykora, J. M. Pietryga, and V. I. Klimov, Seven excitons at a cost of one: Redefining the limits for conversion efficiency of photons into charge carriers, Nano Lett., 6(3):424-429, 2006.
115. A. Luque and A. Martí, Increasing the efficiency of ideal solar cells by photon induced transitions at intermediate levels, Phys. Rev. Lett., 78:5014-5017, Jun 1997.
116. H. H. Kolm, Solar-battery power source, Quarterly Progress Report, Solid State Research, Group 35, May 1956.
117. C. W. Kim and R. J. Schwartz, A p-i-n thermo-photovoltaic diode, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, 16(7):657-663, July 1969.
118. A. Thelen, Multilayer filters with wide transmittance bands, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 53(11):1266-1270, 1963.
119. F. Demichelis, E. Minetti-Mezzetti, M. Agnello, and V. Perotto, Bandpass filters for thermophotovoltaic conversion systems, Sol. Cells, 5(2):135-141, 1982.
120. H. Höfler, H. J. Paul, W. Ruppel, and P. Würfel, Interference filters for thermophotovoltaic solar energy conversion, Sol. Cells, 10(3):273-286, 1983.
121. D. C. White, B. D. Wedlock, and J. Blair, Recent advance in thermal energy conversion, in Proc. of the 15th Annual Power Sources Conf., pp. 125-132, Atlantic City, NJ, May 9-11, 1961.
122. D. G. Gritton and R. C. Bourke, Radioisotope-photovoltaic energy conversion system, Adv. Energy Convers., 5(2):119-145, 1965.
123. B. D. Wedlock, Thermo-photo-voltaic energy conversion, Proc. IEEE, 51(5):694-698, 1963.
124. P. Würfel and W. Ruppel, Upper limit of thermophotovoltaic solar-energy conversion, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, 27(4):745-750, 1980.
125. A. Datas and C. Algora, Detailed balance analysis of solar thermophotovoltaic systems made up of single junction photovoltaic cells and broadband thermal emitters, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 94(12):2137-2147, 2010.
126. D. L. Chubb, Fundamentals of Thermophotovoltaic Energy Conversion, Elsevier, New York, 2007.
127. R. E. Henderson, Artificially radiated energy for photovoltaic power generation, in Transcript of the Photovoltaic Specialists Conf., vol. 2, Washington, DC, April 11, 1963.
128. J. Werth, Operation of photovoltaic cells at high power densities, in Transcript of the Photovoltaic Specialists Conf., vol. 2, Washington, DC, April 11, 1963.
129. E. Doyle, K. Shukla, and C. Metcalfe, Development and demonstration of a 25 watt thermophotovoltaic power source for a hybrid power system, Technical Report NASA/CR-2001-211071, Thermo Power Corporation, August 2001.
130. L. Fraas, R. Ballantyne, J. Samaras, and M. Seal, A thermophotovoltaic electric generator using GaSb cells with a hydrocarbon burner, in First World Conf. on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, vol. 2, pp. 1713-1716, Waikoloa, HI, USA, December 1994.
131. B. Bitnar, W. Durisch, F. von Roth, G. Palfinger, H. Sigg, D. Grützmacher, J. Gobrecht, E.-M. Meyer, U. Vogt, A. Meyer, and A. Heeb, Progress in thermophotovoltaic converters, in A. Martí and A. Luque, eds., Next Generation Photovoltaics, Chapter 10. Institute of Physics Publishing, Philadelphia, 2004.
132. P. Bermel, M. Ghebrebrhan, W. Chan, Y. X. Yeng, M. Araghchini, R. Hamam, C. H. Marton, K. F. Jensen, M. Soljačić, J. D. Joannopoulos, S. G. Johnson, and I. Celanovic, Design and global optimization of high-efficiency thermophotovoltaic systems, Opt. Express, 18(S3):A314-A334, 2010.
133. G. Guazzoni, E. Kittl, and S. Shapiro, Rare earth radiators for thermophotovoltaic energy conversion, in 1968 Int. Electron Devices Meeting, vol. 14, p. 130, Washington, D.C., USA, 1968.
134. E. Kittl, G. Guazzoni, and S. Shapiro, Status of TPV-energy conversion, in 1968 Int. Electron Devices Meeting, vol. 14, p. 130, Washington, D.C., USA, 1968.
135. G. E. Guazzoni, High-temperature spectral emittance of oxides of erbium, samarium, neodymium and ytterbium, Appl. Spectrosc., 26(1):60-65, 1972.
136. D. L. Chubb and R. A. Lowe, Thin-film selective emitter, J. Appl. Phys., 74(9):5687-5698, 1993.
137. R. Lowe, C. Goradia, M. Goradia, and D. L. Chubb, Study of a cesium plasma as a selective emitter for thermophotovoltaic applications, J. Appl. Phys., 68(10):5033-5035, 1990.
138. M. U. Pralle, N. Moelders, M. P. McNeal, I. Puscasu, A. C. Greenwald, J. T. Daly, E. A. Johnson, T. George, D. S. Choi, I. El-Kady, and R. Biswas, Photonic crystal enhanced narrowband infrared emitters, Appl. Phys. Lett., 81(25):4685-4687, 2002.
139. S. Basu, Y.-B. Chen, and Z. M. Zhang, Microscale radiation in thermophotovoltaic devices: A review, Int. J. Energy Res., 31(6-7):689-716, 2007.
140. C. M. Cornelius and J. P. Dowling, Modification of Planck blackbody radiation by photonic band-gap structures, Phys. Rev. A, 59:4736-4746, 1999.
141. P. Nagpal, S. E. Han, A. Stein, and D. J. Norris, Efficient low-temperature thermophotovoltaic emitters from metallic photonic crystals, Nano Lett., 8(10):3238-3243, 2008.
142. G. Castagno, F. Demichelis, and E. Minetti-Mezzetti, Design method for multilayer interference filters, Appl. Opt., 19(3):386-388, 1980.
143. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1963.
144. P. H. Berning and A. F. Turner, Induced transmission in absorbing films applied to band pass filter design, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 47(3):230-239, 1957.
145. I. Celanovic, F. O'Sullivan, M. Ilak, J. Kassakian, and D. Perreault, Design and optimization of one-dimensional photonic crystals for thermophotovoltaic applications, Opt. Lett., 29(8):863-865, 2004.
146. 2photonic crystals for thermophotovoltaic applications, J. Appl. Phys., 97(3):033529, 2005.
147. R. M. Swanson, A proposed thermophotovoltaic solar energy conversion system, Proc. IEEE, 67(3):446-447, 1979.
148. P. Nagpal, D. P. Josephson, N. R. Denny, J. DeWilde, D. J. Norris, and A. Stein, Fabrication of carbon/refractory metal nanocomposites as thermally stable metallic photonic crystals, J. Mater. Chem., 21:10836-10843, 2011.
149. J. Werth, Thermo-photovoltaic energy conversion, in Proc. of the 17th Annual Power Sources Conference, pp. 23-27, Atlantic City, NJ, May 21-23, 1963.
150. P. Bauduin and P. Sibillot, Inas diodes used for thermophotovoltaic conversion of energy, Adv. Energy Convers., 6(1):67-70, 1966.
151. T. J. Coutts, An overview of thermophotovoltaic generation of electricity, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 66(1-4):443-452, 2001.
152. H. V. Watts, M. D. Oestreich, and R. J. Robinson, A nuclear-photon energy conversion study, Technical Report ASD-TDR-63-244, Armour Research Foundation of Illinois Institute of Technology, March 1963.
153. R.W. Haushalter, Engineering investigation of a thermophotovoltaic energy converter, Technical Report N-66-38255, General Motors Corporation, June 1966.
154. E. Kittl, Unique correlations between blackbody radiation and optimum energy gap for a photovoltaic conversion device, in Proc. of the 10th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conf., vol. 10, pp. 103-106, Palo Alto, CA, USA, November 13-15, 1973.
155. R. L. Bell, Concentration ratio and efficiency in thermophotovoltaics, Sol. Energy, 23(3):203-210, 1979.
156. M. Agnello, G. Castagno, F. Demichelis, E. Minetti-Mezzetti, and E. Tresso, Research on the characteristic parameters of thermophotovoltaic (TPV) converter performance, Nuovo Cimento B, 71:89-97, 1982.
157. F. Demichelis, E. Minetti-Mezzetti, M. Agnello, and E. Tresso, Evaluation of thermophotovoltaic conversion efficiency, J. Appl. Phys., 53(12):9098-9104, 1982.
158. L. Broman, Thermophotovoltaics bibliography, Progr. Photovoltaics, 3(1):65-74, 1995.
159. P. F. Baldasaro, E. J. Brown, D. M. Depoy, B. C. Campbell, and J. R. Parrington, Experimental assessment of low temperature voltaic energy conversion, in T. J. Coutts and J. P. Benner, eds., Proc. of the 1st NREL Conf. on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity, pp. 29-43, Copper Mountain, CO, July 24-28, Woodburd, NY, 1994.
160. K.W. Stone, S. M. Kusek, R. E. Drubka, and T. D. Fay, Analysis of solar thermophotovoltaic test data from experiments performed at McDonnell Douglas, in T. J. Coutts and J. P. Benner, eds., Proc. of the 1st NREL Conf. on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity, pp. 153-162, Copper Mountain, CO, July 24-28, Woodburd, NY, 1994.
161. G. A. Holmquist, E. M. Wong, and C. H. Waldman, Laboratory development TPV generator, in J. P. Benner, T. J. Coutts, and D. S. Ginley, eds., Proc. of the 2nd NREL Conf. on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity, pp. 138-161, Colorado Springs, CO, July, Woodburd, NY, 1995.
162. Z. Chen, P. L. Adair, and M. F. Rose, Investigation of energy conversion in TPV power generation prototype using blackbody/selective emitters, in Proc. of the 32nd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., vol. 2., pp. 1097-1100, Honolulu, HI, July 27-August 1, 1997.
163. W. Durisch, B. Grob, J.-C. Mayor, J.-C. Panitz, and A. Rosselet, Interfacing a small thermophotovoltaic generator to the grid, in T. J. Coutts, J. P. Benner, and C. S. Allman, eds., Proc. of the 4th NREL Conf. on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity, pp. 403-414, Denver, CO, Oct. 11-14, Woodburd, NY, 1998.
164. V. D. Rumyantsev, V. P. Khvostikov, S. V. Sorokina, V. I. Vasil'ev, and V. M. Andreev, Portable TPV generator based on metallic emitter and 1.5-Amp GaSb cells, in T. J. Coutts, J. P. Benner, and C. S. Allman, eds., Proc. of the 4th NREL Conf. on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity, pp. 384-393, Denver, CO, Oct. 11-14, Woodburd, NY, 1998.
165. J. S. Kruger, G. Guazzoni, and S. J. Nawrocki, Army thermophotovoltaic efforts, in T. J. Coutts, J. P. Benner, and C. S. Allman, eds., Proc. of the 4th NREL Conf. on Thermophotovoltaic Generation of Electricity, pp. 30-35, Denver, CO, Oct. 11-14, Woodburd, NY, 1998.
166. C. L. DeBellis, M. V. Scotto, L. Fraas, J. Samaras, R. C. Watson, and S. W. Scoles, Component development for 500 watt diesel fueled portable thermophotovoltaic (TPV) power supply, AIP Conf. Proc., 460(1):362-370, 1999.
167. 12eutectic composite selective emitter, in Conf. Record of the 28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conf., pp. 1214-1217, Anchorage, AK, September 15-22, 2000.
168. W. E. Horne, M. D. Morgan, V. S. Sundaram, and T. Butcher, 500 watt diesel fueled TPV portable power supply, AIP Conf. Proc., 653(1):91-100, 2003.
169. B. Bitnar, J.-C. Mayor, W. Durisch, A. Meyer, G. Palfinger, F. von Roth, and H. Sigg, Record electricity-to-gas power efficiency of a silicon solar cell based TPV system, AIP Conf. Proc., 653(1):18-28, 2003.
170. C. J. Crowley, N. A. Elkouh, S. Murray, and D. L. Chubb, Thermophotovoltaic converter performance for radioisotope power systems, AIP Conf. Proc., 746(1):601-614, 2005.
171. C. J. Astle, G. J. Kovacik, and T. R. Heidrick, Design and performance of a prototype thermophotovoltaic system, J. Sol. Energy Eng., 129(3):340-342, 2007.
172. W. Durisch, F. von Roth, and W. J. Tobler, Advances in gas-fired thermophotovoltaic systems, J. Sol. Energy Eng., 129(4):416-422, 2007.
173. K. Qiu and A. C. S. Hayden, Thermophotovoltaic power generation systems using natural gas-fired radiant burners, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 91(7):588-596, 2007.
174. V. Andreev, V. Khvostikov, and A. Vlasov, Solar thermophotovoltaics, in A. L. Luque and A. Viacheslav, eds., Concentrator Photovoltaics, vol. 130 of Springer Series in Optical Sciences, pp. 175-197, Springer, Berlin, 2007.
175. W. Chan, R. Huang, C. Wang, J. Kassakian, J. Joannopoulos, and I. Celanovic, Modeling low-bandgap thermophotovoltaic diodes for high-efficiency portable power generators, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 94(3):509-514, 2010.
176. N. Yamada and T. Ijiro, Design of wavelength selective concentrator for micro PV/TPV systems using evolutionary algorithm, Opt. Express, 19(14):13140-13149, 2011.
177. Y. Xuan, X. Chen, and Y. Han, Design and analysis of solar thermophotovoltaic systems, Renewable Energy, 36(1):374-387, 2011.
178. R. S. DiMatteo, P. Greiff, S. L. Finberg, K. A. Young-Waithe, H. K. H. Choy, M. M. Masaki, and C. G. Fonstad, Enhanced photogeneration of carriers in a semiconductor via coupling across a nonisothermal nanoscale vacuum gap, Appl. Phys. Lett., 79(12):1894-1896, 2001.
179. A. Narayanaswamy, S. Shen, L. Hu, X. Chen, and G. Chen, Breakdown of the Planck blackbody radiation law at nanoscale gaps, Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Proc., 96:357-362, 2009.
180. A. Narayanaswamy and G. Chen, Surface modes for near field thermophotovoltaics, Appl. Phys. Lett., 82(20):3544-3546, 2003.
181. M. Laroche, R. Carminati, and J.-J. Greffet, Near-field thermophotovoltaic energy conversion, J. Appl. Phys., 100(6):063704, 2006.
182. O. W. Richardson, Emission of Electricity from Hot Bodies, 2nd ed., Longmans, Green and Co., New York, 1921.
183. I. Langmuir, Thermionic Phenomena, vol. 3, Pergamon Press, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1961.
184. C. Herring and M. H. Nichols, Thermionic emission, Rev. Mod. Phys., 21:185-270, 1949.
185. J. M. Houston, Theoretical efficiency of the thermionic energy converter, J. Appl. Phys., 30(4):481-487, 1959.
186. J. H. Ingold, Calculation of the maximum efficiency of the thermionic converter, J. Appl. Phys., 32(5):769-772, 1961.
187. H. F. Webster, Calculation of the performance of a high-vacuum thermionic energy converter, J. Appl. Phys., 30(4):488-492, 1959.
188. N. S. Rasor, Figure of merit for thermionic energy conversion, J. Appl. Phys., 31(1):163-167, 1960.
189. A. C. Marshall, An equation for thermionic currents in vacuum energy conversion diodes, Appl. Phys. Lett., 73(20):2971-2973, 1998.
190. A. C. Marshall, An advanced thermionic theory: Recent developments, AIP Conf. Proc., 504(1):1319-1326, 2000.
191. A.-E. Becquerel, Researches on the electrical conductibility of gases at high temperatures, Philos. Mag. Ser. 4, 6(41):456-457, 1853.
192. F. Guthrie, On a relation between heat and static electricity, Philos. Mag. Ser. 4, 46(306):257-266, 1873.
193. J. Elster and H. Geitel, Ueber die electricitaet der flamme, Ann. Phys. Chem., 16(6):193-221, 1882.
194. J. Elster and H. Geitel, Ueber die electricitaetserregung beim contact von gasen und gluehenden koerpern, Ann. Phys. Chem., 19(8):588-624, 1883.
195. S. Dushman, Electron emission from metals as a function of temperature, Phys. Rev., 21:623-636, 1923.
196. C. D. Child, Discharge from hot CaO, Phys. Rev., 32:492-511, 1911.
197. W. Schottky, Über kalte und warme elektronenentladungen, Z. Phys., 14:63-106, 1923.
198. K. H. Kingdon, A method for the neutralization of electron space charge by positive ionization at very low gas pressures, Phys. Rev., 21:408-418, 1923.
199. R. H. Fowler and L. Nordheim, Electron emission in intense electric fields, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 119(781):173-181, 1928.
200. W. Schlichter, Die spontane elektronenemission glhender metalle und das glühelektrische element, Ann. Phys., 352(13):573-640, 1915.
201. I. Langmuir and K. H. Kingdon, Thermionic effects caused by vapours of alkali metals, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 107(741):61-79, 1925.
202. J. E. Lilienfeld, Die elektrizitätsleitung im extremen vakuum, Ann. Phys., 337(9):673-738, 1910.
203. I. Langmuir, The effect of space charge and residual gases on thermionic currents in high vacuum, Phys. Rev., 2:450-486, 1913.
204. N. S. Rasor, The important effect of electron reflection on thermionic converter performance, in Proc. of 33rd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., number 98-211, Colorado Springs, CO, August 2-6, 1998.
205. N. S. Rasor, Thermionic energy conversion plasmas, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., 19(6):1191-1208, 1991.
206. L. R. Danielson, Coadsorption of cesium and oxygen on iridium and lanthanum hexaboride, J. Appl. Phys., 52(1):300-304, 1981.
207. J. R. Luke, Advanced thermionic converter technology development, AIP Conf. Proc., 746(1):918-925, 2005.
208. P. L. Auer, Potential distributions in a low-pressure thermionic converter, J. Appl. Phys., 31(12):2096-2103, 1960.
209. J. R. Smith, G. L. Bilbro, and R. J. Nemanich, Considerations for a high-performance thermionic energy conversion device based on a negative electron affinity emitter, Phys. Rev. B, 76:245327, 2007.
210. I. Langmuir, The effect of space charge and initial velocities on the potential distribution and thermionic current between parallel plane electrodes, Phys. Rev., 21:419-435, 1923.
211. I. Langmuir and K. H. Kingdon, Thermionic effects caused by alkali vapors in vacuum tubes, Science, 57(1463):58-60, 1923.
212. G. N. Hatsopoulos and J. Kaye, Measured thermal efficiencies of a diode configuration of a thermo electron engine, J. Appl. Phys., 29(7):1124-1125, 1958.
213. G. N. Hatsopoulos and J. Kaye, Analysis and experimental esults of a diode configuration of a novel thermoelectron engine, Proc. IRE, 46(9):1574-1579, 1958.
214. H. F. Webster and J. E. Beggs, High-vacuum thermionic energy converter, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc., 3(3):266, 1958.
215. K. G. Hernqvist, M. Kanefsky, and F. H. Norman, Thermionic energy converter, RCA Rev., 19:244-258, 1958.
216. G. M. Grover, D. J. Roehling, E. W. Salmi, and R. W. Pidd, Properties of a thermoelectric cell, J. Appl. Phys., 29(11):1611-1612, 1958.
217. R. W. Pidd, G. M. Grover, E. W. Salmi, D. J. Roehling, and G. F. Erickson, Characteristics of a plasma thermocouple, J. Appl. Phys., 30(12):1861-1865, 1959.
218. V. C. Wilson, Conversion of heat to electricity by thermionic emission, J. Appl. Phys., 30(4):475-481, 1959.
219. J. M. Houston and H. F. Webster, Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, vol. 17, Academic Press, New York, 1962.
220. E. N. Carabateas, S. D. Pezaris, and G. N. Hatsopoulos, Interpretation of experimental characteristics of cesium thermionic converters, J. Appl. Phys., 32(3):352-358, 1961.
221. M. A. Cayless, Thermionic generation of electricity, Br. J. Appl. Phys., 12(9):433-442, 1961.
222. J. M. Houston, Performance characteristic and emission cooling measurements taken on a Cs vapor thermionic converter with a thorium-tungsten emitter, Technical Report AFCRL-63-450, General Electric Company, May 1963.
223. E. S. Rittner and A. Milch, On contact ionization in thermionic converters, J. Appl. Phys., 33(1):228-229, 1962.
224. M. D. Gibbons, Exploratory energy conversion study of photon thermionic, Technical Report R-635 Q-3, General Electric Company, May 1963.
225. J. Bensimon, Thermionic energy converter with photon ionization, US Patent no. 3,300,660, issued Jan. 4, 1967.
226. K. P. Luke, Photoionization of cesium atoms by solar radiation application to a lowtemperature cesium thermionic diode, Sol. Energy, 9(3):110-112, 1965.
227. G. N. Hatsopoulos and J. Kaye, Analysis and experimental results of a diode configuration of a novel thermoelectron engine, Proc. IRE, 46(9):1574-1579, 1958.
228. F. J. Himpsel, J. A. Knapp, J. A. Van Vechten, and D. E. Eastman, Quantum photoyield of diamond(111)-a stable negative-affinity emitter, Phys. Rev. B, 20:624-627, 1979.
229. C. Bandis and B. B. Pate, Photoelectric emission from negative-electron-affinity diamond (111) surfaces: Exciton breakup versus conduction-band emission, Phys. Rev. B, 52:12056-12071, 1995.
230. W. E. Spicer, Photoemissive, photoconductive, and optical absorption studies of alkaliantimony compounds, Phys. Rev., 112:114-122, 1958.
231. 3Sb photocathodes, J. Appl. Phys., 33(6):2110-2112, 1962.
232. L. W. James and J. L. Moll, Transport properties of gaas obtained from photoemission measurements, Phys. Rev., 183:740-753, 1969.
233. R. J. Nemanich, P. K. Baumann, M. C. Benjamin, O.-H. Nam, A. T. Sowers, B. L. Ward, H. Ade, and R. F. Davis, Electron emission properties of crystalline diamond and III-nitride surfaces, Appl. Surface Sci., 130-132:694-703, 1998.
234. P. K. Baumann and R. J. Nemanich, Electron affinity and Schottky barrier height of metal-diamond (100), (111), and (110) interfaces, J. Appl. Phys., 83(4):2072-2082, 1998.
235. W. E. Spicer and A. Herrera-Gomez, Modern theory and applications of photocathodes, in K. J. Kaufmann, ed., SPIE Conf. Proc., vol. 2022, pp. 18-35, 1993.
236. F. A. M. Koeck, J. M. Garguilo, B. Brown, and R. J. Nemanich, Enhanced low-temperature thermionic field emission from surface-treated n-doped diamond films, Diamond Relat. Mater., 11(3-6):774-779, 2002.
237. F. A. M. Koeck, J. M. Garguilo, R. J. Nemanich, S. Gupta, B. R. Weiner, and G. Morell, Spatial distribution of electron emission sites for sulfur doped and intrinsic nanocrystalline diamond films, Diamond Relat. Mater., 12(3-7):474-480, 2003.
238. F. A. M. Koeck, J. M. Garguilo, and R. J. Nemanich, On the thermionic emission from nitrogen-doped diamond films with respect to energy conversion, Diamond Relat. Mater., 13(11-12):2052-2055, 2004.
239. F. A. M. Koeck, J. M. Garguilo, and R. J. Nemanich, Field enhanced thermionic electron emission from sulfur doped nanocrystalline diamond films, Diamond Relat. Mater., 14(3-7):704-708, 2005.
240. F. A. M. Koeck, Y. Wang, and R. J. Nemanich, Thermionic converters based on nanostructured carbon materials, AIP Conf. Proc., 813(1):607-613, 2006.
241. J. R. Smith, R. J. Nemanich, and G. L. Bilbro, The effect of schottky barrier lowering and nonplanar emitter geometry on the performance of a thermionic energy converter, Diamond Relat. Mater., 15(4-8):870-874, 2006.
242. J. R. Smith, G. L. Bilbro, and R. J. Nemanich, Using negative electron affinity diamond emitters to mitigate space charge in vacuum thermionic energy conversion devices, Diamond Relat. Mater., 15(11-12):2082-2085, 2006.
243. J. R. Smith, G. L. Bilbro, and R. J. Nemanich, Theory of space charge limited regime of thermionic energy converter with negative electron affinity emitter, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 27(3):1132-1141, 2009.
244. T. Mahefkey, Thermionics quo vadis? An assessment of the DTRA's advanced thermionics research and development program, Technical Report, National Research Council, 2001.
245. S. F. Adams, Solar thermionic space power technology testing: A historical perspective, in Space Technology and Applications International Forum, vol. 813, pp. 590-597. American Institute of Physics, Melville, NY, 2006.
246. W. R. Menetrey, Solar energy thermionic conversion system, Technical Report EOS-Report 1850-Summary, Electro-Optical Systems, Report for JPL and NASA, Inc., Jan. 1962.
247. W. R. Menetrey and A. Smith, Solar energy thermionic electrical power supplies, J. Spacecr. Rockets, 1:659-665, 1964.
248. A. E. Campbell and A. O. Jensen, Final progress report: Development of an advanced solar energy thermionic (SET) generator, Technical Report EOS-3380-FINAL, Electro-Optical Systems, Report for JPL and NASA, Inc., March 1966.
249. P. J. Brosens, Final Report-Task II: Solar energy thermionic (SET) program, Technical Report TE 34-65, Thermo Electron Engineering Corporation, Report for JPL and NASA, Dec. 1964.
250. P. Rouklove, Thermionic converter and generator development, Technical Report 37-40, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1966.
251. P. Rouklove, Thermionic converter and generator tests, Technical Report 32-1244, NASA Technical Report, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1968.
252. G. Stapfer and K. Shimada, Electrical testing of a six-converter generator, in Proc. of 7th Annual Thermionic Conversion Specialist Conf., pp. 159-163, October 21-23 Framingham, MA, October 21-23, 1968.
253. R. A. Boring, Power sources, Technical Report 37-30, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1964.
254. P. Rouklove, Status report on solar thermionic power systems, in Proc. of 3rd Biennial Aerospace Power Systems Conf., pp. 909-947, Philadelphia, PA, September 1-4, 1964.
255. M. L. Ramalingam, T. R. Lamp, M. Jacox, and F. Kennedy, High temperature energy conversion for the integrated solar upper stage (ISUS), in Proc. of the 31st Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., vol. 1, pp. 351-356, Washington D.C., August 11-16, 1996.
256. H. H. Streckert, L. L. Begg, T. F. Heffernan, and M. H. Horner, Integrated solar upper stage alternate receiver, in Proc. of the 32nd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., vol. 3, pp. 1855-1859, Honolulu, HI, July 27-August 1, 1997.
257. F. G. Kennedy and M. G. Jacox, Mission applications of an integrated solar upper stage (ISUS), in Proc. of the 30th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., vol. 1, pp. 731-736, Orlando, FL, July 30-Aug. 4, 1995.
258. J. D. Malloy, M. G. Jacox, and F. G. Kennedy, Trade studies on integrated solar upper stage (ISUS) systems, in Proc. of the 30th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., vol. 1, pp. 749-753, Orlando, FL, July 30-Aug. 4, 1995.
259. W. G. Anderson and K. Horner-Richardson, Thermionic converters for an integrated solar upper stage (ISUS), in Proc. of the 31st Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., vol. 1, pp. 339-344, Washington, DC., August 11-16, 1996.
260. E. L. James, W. D. Ramsey, and G. J. Talbot, Thermionic converters for ISUS, AIP Conf. Proc., 387(1):479-484, 1997.
261. A. Y. Ender, I. N. Kolyshkin, V. I. Kuznetsov, E. V. Yakovlev, and D. V. Paramonov, Cascaded space solar power system with high temperature Cs-Ba thermionic converter and AMTEC, AIP Conf. Proc., 420(1):1565-1570, 1998.
262. V. I. Babanin, A. Y. Ender, I. N. Kolyshkin, V. I. Kuznetsov, V. I. Sitnov, and D. V. Paramonov, Next generation solar bimodal systems, in Proc. of the 32nd Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., vol. 1, pp. 427-430, Honolulu, HI, July 27-August 1, 1997.
263. H. H. Streckert, L. L. Begg, Y. V. Nikolaev, and J. Watson, Cylindrical inverted thermionic converter for solar power and propulsion system, in Proc. of the 34th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., number 1999-01-2460, Vancouver, Canada, August 2-5, 1999.
264. H H. Streckert, L. L. Begg, Y. V. Nikolaev, D. L. Tsetskhladse, S. A. Eriomin, O. L. Izhvanov, and N. V. Lapochkin, Development of a cylindrical inverted thermionic converter for solar power systems, AIP Conf. Proc., 504(1):1302-1306, 2000.
265. H. H. Streckert, D. Peltier, L. L. Begg, and J. Watson, Conceptual design of high power advanced low mass (HPALM) solar thermionic power system, AIP Conf. Proc., 608(1):1028-1036, 2002.
266. J.-L. Desplat, Testing of a single cell cylindrical inverted converter, AIP Conf. Proc., 608(1):1037-1042, 2002.
267. J.-L. Desplat, Thermionic performance of rhenium emitters, AIP Conf. Proc., 746(1):910-917, 2005.
268. M. R. Martinez, O. Izhvanov, B. Robertson, P. N. Clark, H. H. Streckert, and J.-L. Desplat, Cylindrical inverted multi-cell (CIM) thermionic converter for solar power and propulsion systems, AIP Conf. Proc., 746(1):926-934, 2005.
269. P. N. Clark, J.-L. Desplat, H. H. Streckert, S. F. Adams, and J. W. Smith, Solar thermionic test in a thermal receiver, AIP Conf. Proc., 813(1):598-606, 2006.
270. D. Goodale, D. Lieb, and D. Neale, Solar thermionic energy converter experiment, in Proc. of the 17th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., pp. 1924-1928, Los Angeles, CA, August 8-12, 1982.
271. H. Fowler and A. Israel, Solar-powered thermionic-photoelectric laser, US Patent no. 4,168,716, issued Sept. 25, 1979.
272. J. S. Edelson, Method and apparatus for photoelectric generation of electricity, US Patent no. 5,973,259, issued Oct. 26, 1999.
273. W. E. Spicer, Considerations of photoemissive energy converters, RCA Rev., 22:71-81, 1961.
274. J. W. Schwede, I. Bargatin, D. C. Riley, B. E. Hardin, S. J. Rosenthal, Y. Sun, F. Schmitt, P. Pianetta, R. T. Howe, Z.-X. Shen, and N. A. Melosh, Photon-enhanced thermionic emission for solar concentrator systems, Nat. Mater., 9(9):762-767, 2010.
275. W. Zheng, A. Ogino, and M. Kando, Effects of illumination on thermionic energy converter characteristics, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 39(Part 1, No. 5A):2816-2824, 2000.
276. G. P. Smestad, Conversion of heat and light simultaneously using a vacuum photodiode and the thermionic and photoelectric effects, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 82(1-2):227-240, 2004.
277. T. L. Westover, A. D. Franklin, B. A. Cola, T. S. Fisher, and R. G. Reifenberger, Photoand thermionic emission from potassium-intercalated carbon nanotube arrays, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B, 28(2):423-434, 2010.
278. A. F. Dugan, Contribution of anode emission to space charge in thermionic power converters, J. Appl. Phys., 31(8):1397-1400, 1960.
279. T. L. Westover, A. D. Franklin, T. S. Fisher, and R. G. Reifenberger, Photo- and thermionic emission from potassium-intercalated single-walled carbon nanotube arrays, in Proc. of the 3rd Energy Nanotechnology International Conf., pp. 1-10, Jacksonville, FL, USA, August 10-14, 2008.
280. S. Suzuki, C. Bower, Y. Watanabe, and O. Zhou, Work functions and valence band states of pristine and Cs-intercalated single-walled carbon nanotube bundles, Appl. Phys. Lett., 76(26):4007-4009, 2000.
281. V. S. Robinson, T. S. Fisher, J. A. Michel, and C. M. Lukehart, Work function reduction of graphitic nanofibers by potassium intercalation, Appl. Phys. Lett., 87(6):061501, 2005.
282. T. L. Westover, A. Dighe, P. Amama, N. Lilovich, and T. S. Fisher, Thermionic emission from potassium-intercalated carbon nanotube arrays for direct energy conversion, in Proc. of the 2nd Energy Nanotechnology International Conf., Santa Clara, CA, USA, September 5-7, 2007.
283. T. Sun, F. A. M. Koeck, C. Zhu, and R. J. Nemanich, Combined visible light photo-emission and low temperature thermionic emission from nitrogen doped diamond films, Appl. Phys. Lett., 99(20):202101, 2011.