Bohemian Los Angeles: And the making of modern politics

Bohemian Los Angeles: And the Making of Modern Politics

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages

  Hurewitz, Daniel ^a  

^a CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

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References (514)

1. Lanier Bartlett and Virginia Stivers Bartlett, Los Angeles in 7 Days, Including Southern California (New York: Robert M. McBride & Company, 1932), 199; Bartlett, "Movie Memories" (ms, 1938), 324, in WPA box 195, FWP.
2. John Holusha, "A Theater's Muses, Rescued," NYT, 24 March 2000, and "Commercial Property: A 1912 Playhouse on 42d Street," NYT, 30 November 1997;
3. Michael Whitlatch, "The Empire (Eltinge) Theater," Virtual 42nd Street, web.bvu.edu/faculty/whitlatch/42nd/index.html; New 42nd Street, "Empire Theater," www.new42.org/about_history_empire.cfm.
4. Historians remember Eltinge, however. While Sharon Ullman perhaps gave the most published space to him, Eltinge was also a focus of a few graduate student projects and noted by theater scholars. See Sharon Ullman, Sex Seen: The Emergence of Modern Sexuality in America (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California, 1997);
5. Tamara Lee Gebelt, "Julian Eltinge and the Female Impersonators" (M.A. thesis, University of South Carolina, 1984);
6. Joan Vale, "Tintype Ambitions: Three Vaudevillians in Search of Hollywood Fame" (M.A. thesis, University of San Diego, 1986);
7. Jay Wilson Dorff IV, "Gender and Performance: An Introduction to Female Impersonation in the West Which Includes an Analysis of the Performances of Julian Eltinge and Charles Ludlam" (M.A. thesis, Brown University, 1986);
8. Thomas Bolze, "Female Impersonation in the United States" (Ph.D. diss., State University of New York, Buffalo, 1994);
9. and F. Michael Moore, Drag! Male and Female Impersonators on Stage, Screen and Television: An Illustrated History ( Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 1994).
10. William Taube, interview with author, Los Angeles, December 1996.
11. Charles Taylor, "The Politics of Recognition," in Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 30; Doug Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 340; Jeffrey Weeks, Invented Moralities: Sexual Values in an Age of Uncertainty (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 90.
12. Weeks, Invented Moralities, 90; Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (London: Allen Lane, 1979), as cited in Weeks, Sexuality, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2003), 3. Weeks's claim also echoed Havelock Ellis's from early in the century that "a man is what his sex is"; the difference between them is telling. Ellis quoted in John D'Emilio and Estelle Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 226.
13. Taylor, "Politics," 28-29. Taylor traced the emergence and evolution of these ideas in his masterwork, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), and encapsulated them in The Ethics of Authenticity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
14. See Norbert Wiley, "The Politics of Identity in American History," in Social Theory and the Politics of Identity, ed. Craig Calhoun (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994), 131-149.
15. The literature theorizing identity politics is rich and varied, but my thinking has been most influenced by Taylor, "Politics," Ethics, and Sources; David A. Hollinger, Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism (New York: Basic Books, 1995);
16. Calhoun, Social Theory;
17. Phelan, Identity Politics; Robert Bailey, Gay Politics, Urban Politics: Identity and Economics in the Urban Setting (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998); Craig Rimmerman, From Identity to Politics: The Lesbian and Gay Movements in the United States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002); and Susan Hekman, Private Selves, Public Identities: Reconsidering Identity Politics (University Park: Pennsylvania State Press, 2004).
18. In some ways, this book can be viewed as joining Karen Krahulik's recent and dynamic study of Provincetown, in that both books fold the history of gay community formation into a study of multiple interrelated communities.
19. Krahulik, Provincetown: From Pilgrim Landing to Gay Resort (New York: New York University Press, 2005).
20. Moira Kenney, Mapping Gay L.A.: The Intersection of Place and Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 7.
21. Jeb Brighouse, telephone interview with author, Los Angeles, 11 February 1997;
22. William Mason, telephone interview with author, Los Angeles, April 1997.
23. Ivanhoe advertisement, Los Angeles Times, 14 October 1887; "Silver Lake Terrace," Bihr & White, Los Angeles, n.d.; both in file "Los Angeles-Silver Lake," CVF. See also advertisement in LAT, 27 March 1927, and additional advertisement and clipping ("Paving of Important Silver Lake Boulevard Link Reported") in Los Angeles Evening Express, 22 May 1926.
24. Edward Soja, Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-and- Imagined Places (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1996), 3, 77, 97-98, 110.
25. Jerrold Seigel, Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 1830-1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 25, 10-11;
26. Ross Wetzsteon, Republic of Dreams: Greenwich Village, The American Bohemia, 1910-1960 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), 8.
27. See also Christine Stansell, American Moderns: Bohemian New York and the Creation of a New Century (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2000);
28. Leslie Fishbein, Rebels in Bohemia: The Radicals of The Masses, 1911-1917 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982);
29. Robert Humphrey, Children of Fantasy: The First Rebels of Greenwich Village (New York: Wiley, 1978).
30. Tarrow offers the intriguing thought that movements succeed only when leaders tap into "more deep-rooted feelings of solidarity or identity." Taking the broader approach that this book does, however, suggests how identities can be constructed within movements (Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, 2d ed. [New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998], 3, 6).
31. Louis Althusser, "Ideology and the State," in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971), 174. Althusser explained this as the moment when "ideology hails or interpellates concrete individuals as concrete subjects" (173). See also Althusser, "Freud and Lacan," in Lenin and Philosophy.
32. D'Emilio and Freedman explain the period in terms of the "continuing salience of gender in shaping an individual's sense of sexual meaning" (Intimate Matters, 228).
33. Miriam Brooks Sherman, interview with author, Los Angeles, 4 October 2000, and Ventura, CA, 7 July 2005.
34. Bérubé, Coming Out; D'Emilio, Sexual Politics.
35. On the start of this health migration, see John Baur, "A Health Rush Begins," in Los Angeles: Biography of a City, ed. John and LaRee Caughey (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), 184-187.
36. Peggy Dennis, The Autobiography of an American Communist: A Personal View of a Political Life, 1925-1975 (Berkeley: Creative Arts Book Company, 1977), 19-20.
37. Miriam Brooks Sherman, email to author, 30 September 2005.
38. Stuart Timmons, The Trouble with Harry Hay: Founder of the Modern Gay Movement (Boston: Alyson Books, 1990), 12-20.
39. Adamic and Garland quoted in Starr, Material Dreams, 132;
40. Carey McWilliams, "Los Angeles," Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine 85 (May 1927): 136, as quoted in Donald Christopher Gantner, "Regional Imagination and Radical Conscience: Carey McWilliams in the West" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2001), 74.
41. Abu-Lughod, New York, Chicago, 151-152.
42. Jake Zeitlin, Books and the Imagination: Fifty Years of Rare Books-Jake Zeitlin, interviewed by Joel Gardner (OHP, 1980), 21-23. Anthony L. Lehman, Paul Landacre: A Life and a Legacy (Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop, 1983), 32-36.
43. Serril Gerber, interview with author, Los Angeles, 30 November 2002.
44. Charles G. Clarke, Early Film Making in Los Angeles (Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop, 1976), 10-22.
45. Lincoln Haynes, "Edendale-Where Stars Were Born," LAT, 26 December 1983; "City's New Reservoir, Now Near Completion, Will Connect with Mains to Cost $150,000," LAE, 20 May 1906; Ursula Vils, "Folk History of a Neighborhood: Altivo Way Residents Chronicle a Changing Cityscape," LAT, 2 November 1983; Norman Klein, The History of Forgetting: Los Angeles and the Erasure of Memory (New York: Verso Books, 1997), 127, 143; "Fact Sheet: Silver Lake Reservoir," CVF; "His Record Is Clear," LAT, 23 November 1900; "Silver Lake Reservoir," LAT, 26 November 1906.
46. Bartlett, "Movie Memories" (ms., 1938), 323-24, 332, box 195, FWP; Remi Nadeau, "Enter the Moviemakers," in Los Angeles, ed. Caughey; Clarke, Early Film Making, 29.
47. Bartlett, "Movie Memories," 330-331.
48. Bartlett, "Movie Memories," 324-325.
49. See also Klein, History of Forgetting, 126, 144.
50. A chronological account of Eltinge's life appears in Moore, Drag! More detail appears in Gebelt, "Julian Eltinge"; Vale, "Tintype Ambitions"; Dorff, "Gender and Performance"; and Ullman, Sex Seen.
51. Harry Hay, We Are a Separate People, interviewed by Mitch Tuchman (OHP, 1987), 370;
52. Robert Toll, On with the Show: The First Century of Show Business in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 239, cited in Marybeth Hamilton, " 'I'm the Queen of the Bitches': Female Impersonation and Mae West's Pleasure Man," in Crossing the Stage: Controversies on Cross-Dressing, ed. Lesley Ferris (New York: Routledge, 1993), 110-11. Hamilton also linked Eltinge and Houdini.
53. Hamilton, " 'I'm the Queen,' " 107. For a fascinating portrait of the late 1960s and early 1970s drag queen milieu, see Esther Newton, Mother Camp: Female Impersonators in America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972).
54. Otto Hauerbach and Karl Hoschna, "If Only Some One Would Teach Me" (New York: Witmark & Sons, 1910). Similar jokes appeared in "Mother, May I Go Out to Swim?" and "Don't Take Your Beau to the Seashore."
55. "A Tribute to Art," Vanity Fair, 6 July 1912, in Locke 160: 101; "Girls and More Girls 'Cut' Work to Form Waiting Line," Cincinnati Times, 7 March 1912, in Locke 431: 19. A 1908 note declared, "When Julian Eltinge appeared in his female characterizations half a dozen near-sighted gentlemen retired to order flowers. One late arrival, who was unblessed with a program, refused to be disillusioned on the ground that ignorance is bliss" ("English's-Cohan's Minstrels," Indianapolis News, 30 September 1908, in Locke 182: 25).
56. "Jealous Husband Asks Mayor to Keep Julian Eltinge Away," New York Telegraph, 25 December 1914, in Locke 431: 157; "Bill Dalton," Cincinnati Commercial, 28 February 1912, in Locke 431: 10.
57. Hamilton makes a similar argument (" 'I'm the Queen,' " 109-111).
58. Leon Cass Baer, "Helig," Seattle Star, 30 June 1919, in Locke 432: 188; "The Man Who Plays the Part of Woman," Pittsburgh Gazette, 29 January 1911, in Locke 182: 81.
59. Toll, On with the Show, 237; Dorff, "Gender and Performance," 52. Dorff estimated Eltinge's salary between 1906 and 1912 as ranging from $250 to more than $1,000 each week, noting that some reports put it at $2,000 a week for his vaudeville routines.
60. "Boston: Julian Eltinge," Boston Transcript, 30 April 1912, in Locke 431:
61. Ten years after The Fascinating Widow, in the Eltinge film "Madame, Behave!" one enamored suitor pursued Eltinge while wearing a false beard. Once alone with Eltinge, though, he lent Eltinge the beard. Eltinge again made the artifice of gender explicit by donning the disguise and becoming a man dressed as a woman wearing a most masculine beard (Al Christie [producer], "Madame, Behave!" [Los Angeles: Christie Films, 1925]).
62. "Woman Is Only Ten Percent Nature," LAE, 12 April 1914, in Locke 431: 113.
63. Harry Hay, telephone interview with author, Los Angeles, March 1997. Vale confirmed Eltinge's romantic liaisons with other men from a handful of sources, including a performer in his 1923 touring show (Vale, Tintype Ambitions, chap. 2, nn. 11 and 76). Norman Cohen, emeritus professor of American history at Occidental College, worked on a project involving Eltinge for several years and also confirmed his homosexual relationships (Cohen, telephone interview with author, Los Angeles, March 1997).
64. Variety, 23 December 1911, cited in Bolze, "Female Impersonation," 55; Bolze, "Female Impersonation," 57; "Girls and More Girls," in Locke 431: 19;
65. Joseph Schenck (producer), Seven Chances (Los Angeles: Metro-Goldwyn, 1925).
66. Vale, Tintype Ambitions, 11, 45, and 51 n. 11.
67. On Progressive Era masculinity, see Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995);
68. Michael Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York: Free Press, 1996);
69. J. A. Managan and James Walvin, eds., Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800-1940 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987);
70. and Anthony E. Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York: Basic Books, 1993). On tour, see Bolze, "Female Impersonation," 50.
71. Amy Leslie, "The Chorus Man," Detroit News, 10 September 1913, reprint of article from Chicago Daily News, in Locke 431: 88. To be certain, Leslie said nothing explicit about the "prim gentles' " sexual desires. Nonetheless, she made clear how much they, as "fairies," had indeed carved out a place for themselves within the gender code, regardless of a connection to desire.
72. By contrast, historian Ullman read Leslie's column as a clear attack on the "male homosexual subculture circling the entertainment industry" and in sisted that discussions of "manliness" were merely code for "sexual perversity" and that the "prim gentles" were homosexuals. Most telling, she felt, was the final story, "revealing a 'camp' sensibility among the 'prim gentles' who refer to Eltinge with a sisterly 'she.' Obviously, the men running from the roaring Eltinge saw him as one of their own" (Ullman, Sex Seen, 59-61).
73. "Julian Eltinge Refuses to Pose for Pictures," Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, 12 April 1913, in Locke 431: 79; "Eltinge an Actors' Colony Founder," NYT, 26 June 1915.
74. On Chaplin and Hollywood friendships, see Gerith Von Ulm, Charlie Chaplin: King of Tragedy (Caldwell, ID: Caxton Printers, 1940), 82-86.
75. G. P. von Harleman, "Motion Picture Studios of California: A Review of the Wonderful Development of the Film Producing Industry on the Pacific Coast-Recent News of Some of the Big Plants," Moving Picture World, 10 March 1917, 1608;
76. Pearl Gaddis, "He, She, or It," Motion Picture Magazine, July 1917, 27-33, as quoted in Anthony Slide, "The Silent Closet: Homosexuality in Silent Films," Film Quarterly 52 (Summer 1999), 30.
77. Louella Parsons, "Is Julian Eltinge Going to Wed? New California Home, All Complete Except for a Woman at the Other End of the Table, and Man with 64 Gowns Has a Wise Smile," n.p., 16 December 1917, in Locke 160: 121; Kenneth McGaffey, "Clothes Do Not Make the Woman," Photoplay, January 1918, 86, in Locke 160: 141.
78. While Hollywood joined the city of Los Angeles in 1910, both Burbank and Culver City remained independent of the growing metropolis. For more on the freedom these towns afforded the film companies, see Neal Gabler's An Empire of Their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood (New York: Crown, 1988).
79. The Los Angeles Examiner noted the prior fall that Eltinge was "building himself an Italian villa on the high shores of Silver Lake" and discussed the construction materials (LAE, 30 September 1917, in Locke 432: 139). Louella Parsons also wrote about the construction in "Is Julian Eltinge Going to Wed?"
80. "Julian Eltinge's Italian Castle in California," Photoplay, November 1918, 6;
81. Elmer Grey, "The Residence of Julian Eltinge, Esq.," Architectural Record, February 1921, 2, 99. A precompletion visit to the house appeared in Archie Bell, "Actor 'Buys a Hill,' " Cleveland Leader, 17 July 1918, in Locke 160: 127. See also Parsons, "Eltinge Going to Wed?"; McGaffey, "Clothes Do Not Make the Woman"; "Julian Eltinge," Dramatic Mirror, 22 July 1919, in Locke 160: 145; "Villa Capistrano: The Palatial Residence of Julian Eltinge at Los Angeles, Cal.," Theatre Magazine, April 1919, in Locke 160: 146.
82. "Eltinge's Italian Castle," 6; Parsons, "Eltinge Going to Wed?"; Grey, "The Residence," 2, 99.
83. "The Melting Pot," Photoplay, November 1918, italics added.
84. Starr, Material Dreams, 84-87.
85. Peter Boag commented that middle-class same-sex subcultures in the Northwest favored "oral eroticism" as a sexual practice. While the information about the Long Beach men is limited, the few men whose professions are known were decidedly middle-class (Boag, Same-Sex Affairs, 5).
86. Although Ullman describes Lamb as a pharmacist, the newspaper obituaries described him as a banker and "prominent churchman" ("Takes His Life").
87. Eugene Fisher, report typescript, apparently a draft of a proposed article, MCK. Interestingly, a 1949 underground publication defined "ninety-six" as a "California term for reciprocal anal intercourse."
88. See Swasarnt Nerf, Peter Asti, and Daphne Dilldock, "The Gay Girl's Guide: A Primer for Novices, A Review for Roues" (n.p.: Phallus Press Publication, 1949), 13, KI.
89. Fisher, report typescript.
90. Ullman, Sex Seen, 63; "Long Beach Recital," LAT, 19 November 1914. Leila Rupp recapitulated this account in A Desired Past, 94-96.
91. Don Herndon Greenfield, interview with author, Glendale, CA, 3 April 2000;
92. Jack Gard, interview with author, Los Angeles, March 2000; Harold Burton (pseudonym), interview with author, Los Angeles, 25 November 2002; James Kepner, interview with author, Los Angeles, 19 and 21 January 1997.\
93. John Howard, Men Like That: A Southern Queer History (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1997), 14-15. Male same-sex sexual networks are a feature of most gay urban histories. See Boyd, Wide-Open Town; Chauncey, Gay New York; Stein, City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves; Howard, Men Like That; Tim Retzloff, "Cars and Bars: Assembling Gay Men in Postwar Flint, Michigan," and David Johnson, "The Kids of Fairytown: Gay Male Culture on Chicago's Near North Side in the 1930s," in Creating a Place for Ourselves: Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Community Histories, ed. Brett Beemyn (New York: Routledge, 1997); Gayle Rubin, "The Miracle Mile: South of Market and Gay Male Leather, 1962-1997," in Reclaiming San Francisco: History, Politics, Culture, ed. James Brook, Chris Carlsson, and Nancy Peters (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1997); Alvaro Sanchez-Crispin and Alvaro Lopez-Lopez, "Gay Male Places of Mexico City," and James Polchin, "Having Something to Wear: The Landscape of Identity on Christopher Street," in Queers in Space: Communities, Public Places, Sites of Resistance, ed. Gordon Brent Ingram, Anne-Marie Bouthillette, and Yolanda Retter (Seattle: Bay Press, 1997); and Randolph Trumbach, "London," in Queer Sites: Gay Urban Histories since 1600, ed. David Higgs (New York: Routledge, 2000).
94. Dale Jennings, interview with author, Los Angeles, 21 February 2000; Harry Hay, We Are a Separate People, interviewed by Mitch Tuchman (OHP, 1987), 273-74; Eugene Fisher notes, MCK; Jim Kepner, "Goodbye to Pershing Square," ms., file "Pershing Square," ONE; Kepner, An Interview. The sexual activity in the square compares interestingly to Boag's description of Lownsdale Park in central Portland, as well as Stein's portraits of Rittenhouse and Washington squares in Philadelphia (Boag, Same-Sex Affairs, 113-15; Stein, City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves, chap. 3). For more general Pershing Square history, see Steve Fader, "Pershing Square Landmarks" (Los Angeles: Los Angeles Conservancy, 1993); Pitt and Pitt, Los Angeles, 389; William Deverell, "My America or Yours? Americanization and the Battle for the Youth of Los Angeles," in Metropolis in the Making: Los Angeles in the 1920s, ed. Tom Sitton and William Deverell (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001), 288.
95. Fred Frisbie, "Talk about Gay Los Angeles" (video recording), 1 March 1987, ONE;
96. Merrill Leonard Harrod, "A Study of Deviate Personalities as Found in Main Street of Los Angeles" (M.A. thesis, University of Southern California, 1939), 25-26.
97. Jim Kepner, "Angel's Flight," in Loves of a Long-Time Activist: A Suite for Lovers, Tricks, Fascinations & Near Misses (Los Angeles: selfpublished, 1996), 37. Compare the overlapping subcultures with Boyd, Wide- Open Town, 5, and Boag, Same-Sex Affairs, 6.
98. Jennings, interview. Hay confirmed the activity in Echo Park, having discovered it in the early 1930s and remained a regular for several years (Hay, author interview; Timmons, Trouble, 62).
99. Edward Weston, The Daybooks of Edward Weston, ed. Nancy Newhall (New York: Aperture, 1961, 1973), 1:10.
100. Weston, Daybooks, 1:10.
101. See also Weston J. Naef, "Edward Weston: The Home Spirit and Beyond," in Edward Weston in Los Angeles: A Catalogue for Exhibitions at the Huntington Library, November 25, 1986-March 29, 1987, and the J. Paul Getty Museum, November 25, 1986-February 1, 1987, ed. Susan Danly and Weston J. Naef (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1986).
102. Harrod, "Study of Deviate Personalities," 20-21. On bathhouses, see Suellen Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 15, 116, 126.
103. Harry Otis, "Some Southern Californiana, from the Reminiscences of Harry Otis," file "Baths," ONE; Greenfield, author interview. Eugene Fisher's notes also mention a Turkish Baths on Spring Street; the proprietor of that bathhouse was arrested and killed himself in the city jail (Fisher, notes, MCK).
104. Hay, Separate People, 187; "Reporter's Transcript," The People v. R. B. Harrison, Superior Court 6330, trial 10, June 1910, 128, 135, 138, 139; transcript in file for The People, Respondent, v. R. B. Harrison, Appellant, Court of Appeal of California, 2d Appellate Dist., Div. 2, 14 Cal. App. 545; 112 P. 733; 1910 Cal. App. LEXIS 71, Court of Appeal Records, California State Archives, Sacramento.
105. Frisbie, "Talk."
106. Basil Woon, Incredible Land: A Jaunty Baedeker to Hollywood and the Great Southwest (New York: Liveright Publishing, 1933), 10-11;
107. Richard Halliburton, "Half Mile of History," Reader's Digest, October 1937, 73, as quoted in Harrod, "Study of Deviate Personalities," 11; Ted de Leigh, "1930s Bars Interview," ms. notes, ONE; Frisbie, "Talk."
108. Frisbie, "Talk."
109. Kepner, An Interview, 1, 5; Kepner, author interview;
110. Harry Hay, interview with author, San Francisco, 6 April 2001. The official Waldorf liquor license was denied in 1936 on grounds that the business ran "contrary to public welfare and morals" ("Night Clubs Lose Liquor Sales Rights," LAT, 22 January 1936).
111. Nerf, Asti, and Dilldock, "Gay Girl's Guide"; Hay, Separate People, 393-395.
112. Brian Lee, "Everybody's Baby Estelle," News West, 3-17 February 1977, 14, folder "Los Angeles Bars," ONE. Estelle Milmar, interview with author, West Hollywood, CA, 21 December 1998.
113. Hay, Separate People, 488-489;
114. Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein II, "Bill," from Showboat, 1927.
115. Burton, author interview; Frisbie, "Talk."
116. Timmons, Trouble, 46;
117. Harry Hay, interviewed by John D'Emilio, San Juan Pueblo, NM, 16-17 October 1976, tape 00403, side one, IGIC; Hay, telephone interview.
118. Gary Atkins, Gay Seattle: Stories of Exile and Belonging (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003);
119. Kennedy and Davis, Boots, 35;
120. Johnson, "Kids," 99.
121. Greenfield, author interview; Gard, author interview.
122. Ross Higgins, "Baths, Bushes, and Belonging: Public Sex and Gay Community in Pre-Stonewall Montreal," in Public Sex/Gay Space, ed. William Leap (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 190; Boyd, Wide-Open Town, 5.
123. Laud Humphreys, "Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Places," in Public Sex, ed. Leap, 32-35; Burton, author interview.
124. On handling the limited evidence of trials and press coverage, see Boag, Same-Sex Affairs, 9, and Howard, Men Like That, 127-173.
125. Fisher, report typescript.
126. See Boag, Same-Sex Affairs, 128-135, 137-139. For a richer context of degeneration, see Nancy Stepan, "Biological Degeneration: Races and Proper Places," and Sander L. Gilman, "Sexology, Psychoanalysis, and Degeneration: From a Theory of Race to a Race to Theory," in Degeneration, ed. J. E. Chamberlin and S. L. Gilman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).
127. "Pay for Seats; Trial Delayed," 17 November 1914; "Police Guard at the Door," 16 November 1914; "Attorney Aims Blow at Detective Witness," 11 December 1914, all in LAT. While the city did have a long record of occasional sodomy arrests and trials, the mass arrests seem to have been unprecedented.
128. "Long Beach Recital of Shameless Men," 19 November 1914; "Long Beach Uncovers 'Social Vagrant' Clan," 14 November 1914, both in LAT.
129. C. K. McClatchy, "Publicity Is Needed and Then More Publicity," Sacramento Bee, 23 November 1914, reprinted in LAT, 25 November 1914.
130. "Cleaning Up Long Beach," 21 November 1914; "Holy Bible on the Sodomites," 26 November 1914, both in LAT.
131. A variety of problems surfaced with the jury, including that one of the first jurors was discovered to have had a criminal record and to have been declared insane. "Long Beach Recital," 19 November 1914; "Eight to Four for Acquittal," 21 November 1914; "Week's Delay for Decision," 25 November 1914, all in LAT. On the acquittal, see Ullman, Sex Seen, 69.
132. "Week's Delay."
133. "Journalism That Is So Brutal That It Kills," Los Angeles Tribune, 19 November 1914; "The Brute," Los Angeles Tribune, 2 December 1914; "Defense of Degenerates," LAT, 3 December 1914; " 'Brutal Journalism,' " LAT, 27 November 1914; all as cited in "Reporter's Transcript," 36, 142, 106-7, in Earl, Respondents v. Times-Mirror, Appellants, L.A. no. 5498, Supreme Court of California, 185 Cal. 165. On Earl's grounds, see Earl testimony in "Reporter's Transcript," 105.
134. Opinion, Earl v. Times-Mirror, section "The Nature of the Newspaper Controversy."
135. "Jury Acquits in Six-O-Six," LAT, 12 December 1914.
136. See Boag on Wilde's trial as a framework for understanding a similar homosexual scandal (Same-Sex Affairs, 127-135).
137. Information from "Clerk's Transcript" and "Reporter's Transcript," People v. Macon F. Irby," Los Angeles Superior Court, Crim. 20595; "Reporter's Transcript on Appeal," People, Respondent v. Macon F. Irby, Appellant, Court of Appeal of California, 2d Appellate Dist., Div. 2, 67 Cal. App. 520; and additional appellate briefs; all contained in Court of Appeal Records, California State Archives, Sacramento.
138. Copy of "Arrest Report," in "Clerk's Transcript," People v. Irby, 61-62; "Reporter's Transcript," People v. Irby, 6, 136. Also see "Respondent's Brief on Appeal," People, Respondent v. Irby, Appellant, 2-3.
139. See Howard, Men Like That, 129-142, on a comparable case. See also Eve Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 19-21.
140. "Reporter's Transcript," People v. Irby, 101-102.
141. Irby apparently told the arresting officer that once Solovich's advances were known, his actions would seem justifiable. Testimony of Officer John A. W. Stelzriede, partial transcript of first mistrial, cited in "Reporter's Transcript on Appeal," People, Respondent v. Irby, Appellant, 8, 48.
142. "Reporter's Transcript," People v. Irby, 98.
143. On the divergence between changing medical concepts and popular notions, see Rupp, Desired Past, 80-81; Chauncey, "From Sexual Inversion to Homosexuality: Medicine and the Changing Conceptualization of Female Deviance," Salmagundi, nos. 58-59 (Fall 1982-Winter 1983): 114-146.
144. "Clerk's Transcript," People v. Irby, 61.
145. Boag, Same-Sex Affairs, 24-25; D'Emilio and Freedman, Intimate Matters, 226-229.
146. Thomas Waugh, Hard to Imagine: Gay Male Eroticism in Photography and Film from Their Beginnings to Stonewall (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 319, 321;
147. Bernard Natan (director), The Exclusive Sailor, circa 1923-25. The film, while French-made, had English title cards and circulated in the United States. Monkey Business, 1935. A much less staged film, Piccolo Pete, from the same year, also featured three-way activity, although the sexual activity between the men was exclusively oral and occurred only briefly at the film's end (Waugh, Hard, 312). All three films in Film Collections, KI.
148. Burton, author interview. Interestingly, Burton remained fairly disdainful of drag queens and female impersonators even late in life. "I don't need a make-believe woman," he stated in 2002. "If I were interested in women, I'd go after the real stuff." At the same time, he emphasized that gender inversion was not tied to homosexuality. "But you must understand," he stressed, "that's a separate thing entirely. That's a certain cliché. And if they wish to be women and are making a living as a woman, that's a whole different thing, and it has nothing to do with homosexuality."
149. Film quote and Variety (10 March 1926) cited in Slide, "Silent Closet," 30. On more such films, see Russo, Celluloid Closet, chap. 1.
150. Slide, "Silent Closet," 31.
151. Lehman, Paul Landacre, 19, 33, 39-40.
152. Margaret Landacre, "A Roof over Our Heads," n.d., n.p., 1-2, file 1, box 13, PLP.
153. Ward Ritchie, "The Forgotten Street of Books," in A Garland for Jake Zeitlin, ed. J. M. Edelstein (Los Angeles: Grant Dahlstrom & Saul Marks, 1967), 50-51.
154. Lehman, Paul Landacre, 42, 57.
155. To a degree, they were behind the curve of that change even in this country, where the artists of New York's Greenwich Village had begun pursuing similar goals in the 1910s.
156. Starr, Material Dreams, 329;
157. Lionel Rolfe, "L.A. Arts & Letters: From A to Zeitlin," Los Angeles Reader, 31 August 1982, 9.
158. Rolfe, "L.A. Arts," 9. On Edendale demographics, see Klein, History of Forgetting, 125-26. On Greenwich Village immigrants and artists, see Stansell, American Moderns, chaps. 2-5.
159. Arthur Millier, "Laguna's Art Nabobs Do It Again," LAT, 8 May 1938. Sixteen-year-old Millard Sheets was invited down to Laguna by artist Clarence Hinkle in the early 1920s and saw that visit as "one of the most important moments of my life. I knew that there was no question about what I was going to do all the rest of my life. . . . The kind of lives they lived and the way they thought about what they were doing was so real" (Sheets, interviewed by Paul Karlstrom, 28 October 1986, 6-7, AAA).
160. Millard Sheets, Los Angeles Art Community: Group Portrait-Millard Sheets, interviewed by George M. Goodwin (OHP, 1977), 362-64. On Macdonald- Wright, see Paul Karlstrom and Susan Ehrlich, Turning the Tide: Early Los Angeles Modernists 1920-1956 (Santa Barbara: Santa Barbara Museum of Art, 1990), 89-91; Nancy Dustin Wall Moure, Painting and Sculpture in Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1980), 31.
161. Sheets, Los Angeles Art Community, 33-34.
162. Lehman, Paul Landacre, 40.
163. Margaret McCreery [Landacre], "The Woodcut Prints of Paul Landacre," The Print Connoisseur 12 (1932), 121-122, file "Margaret's Writings," box 12, PLP.
164. Suzanne Keller, The Urban Neighborhood: A Sociological Perspective (New York: Random House, 1968), chap. 2; Stansell, American Moderns, especially chaps. 6-8.
165. Landacre, "Roof," 3.
166. Lehman, Paul Landacre, 59.
167. Landacre, "Roof," 4.
168. Lehman, Paul Landacre, 43, 47, 49. Additionally, the foreword to California Hills was written by Arthur Millier, the art critic for the Los Angeles Times, who was in the Zeitlin circle and had raved about Landacre's work when he had seen it in Zeitlin's shop the year before (Paul Landacre, California Hills and Other Wood-Engravings [Los Angeles: B. McCallister, 1931]).
169. Smith, Utopia and Dissent, xviii; McCreery [Landacre], "Woodcut Prints," 121-122.
170. "Proposed Draft of By-Laws"; Zeitlin, Books, 1:112.
171. Lawrence Powell, cited in Ritchie, Years, 80;
172. Ritchie, Years, 100;
173. Zeitlin, Books, 1:101;
174. Lehman, Paul Landacre, 42. The 1933 volume, A Gil Blas in California, was a translation of an 1852 Alexander Dumas travelogue of California.
175. Ward Ritchie, Printing and Publishing in Southern California: Ward Ritchie, interviewed by Elizabeth Dixon (OHP, 1969), 14, 34.
176. Ritchie,Years, 91-93. Canfield's daughter married Antonio Moreno, another silent-film star, and was still living in a mansion on top of the hill when Ritchie moved in. Moreno had developed a large part of the area as "Moreno Highlands." See Hart's autobiography, William S. Hart, My Life East and West (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1929).
177. Lawrence Powell, Looking Back at Sixty: Recollections of Lawrence Clark Powell, Librarian, Teacher, and Writer, interviewed by James V. Mink (OHP, 1973), 147; Ritchie, Years, 93-94; David Revill, The Roaring Silence: John Cage, A Life (London: Bloomsbury, 1992), 47-55.
178. Ritchie, Years, 94, 96-97. Only one issue of The Mousetrap was produced, due to the loud objections of Walt Disney; a copy of it is in the Ward Ritchie Press Collection at the William Andrews Clark Memorial Library. Stuart returned to fame in the 1990s when she portrayed a survivor of the Titanic in the eponymous film.
179. The Club, 1;
180. Ward Ritchie, Some Books with Illustrations by Paul Landacre (Los Angeles: Santa Susana Press, 1978), 20.
181. Ritchie, Some Books, ix, 20-21.
182. The Club, cover.
183. Invitation, file 31, box 1, JZP.
184. Ritchie, Printing, 471;
185. Ward Ritchie, "Rare Edition," Westways, May 1980, file "Landacre, Paul-'Rare Edition,' " box 250, JZP. See also Lehman, Paul Landacre, 87-89; and The Club.
186. Separate from Landacre's economic life, the hills of Edendale also provided clients and investors for Zeitlin and his shops (Zeitlin, Books, 1:148-149).
187. Daves cited in Lehman, Paul Landacre, 84-85. Daves graduated from Stanford in 1926 and went to work as a prop handler at MGM in 1928. He soon appeared in Duke Steps Out with Joan Crawford and then began moving around, writing or directing for The Petrified Forest, Destination Tokyo, Hollywood Canteen, Demetrius and the Gladiator, 3:10 to Yuma, and Kings Go Forth.
188. "The Paul Landacre Association," 1, item 4, file 1, box 250, JZP.
189. "Landacre Association," 6. Belt, with Zeitlin, developed a renowned collection of Leonardo da Vinci, now housed at UCLA (Powell, Looking Back, 479). On Crotty, see Zeitlin, Books, 149, 470-71; LAE, 18 January 1931, 6 April 1950, 9 May 1961. Ritchie referred to Mrs. Doheny as "Countess Estelle" (Ritchie, Paul Landacre, 43). Doheny also sponsored Zeitlin when he was short for a down payment (Zeitlin, Books, 149, 470-71). See also Ward Ritchie, The Dohenys of Los Angeles: A Talk before the Zamorano Club on December 1, 1971 (Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop, 1974), 30-35. On Borzage, see Who Was Who in America, 1961-1968 (Chicago: Marquis-Who's Who, 1968), 4:103. On Struss, see Barbara McCandless, Bonnie Yochelson, and Richard Koszarski, New York to Hollywood: The Photography of Karl Struss (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995).
190. Richard Cándida Smith, "The Elusive Quest of the Moderns," in On the Edge of America: California Modernist Art, 1900-1950, ed. Paul Karlstrom (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996), 23. Victoria Dailey, "Art: Naturally Modern," in Victoria Dailey, Natalie Shivers, and Michael Dawson, LA's Early Moderns: Art / Architecture / Photography (Los Angeles: Balcony Press, 2003), 33.
191. Richard Pine, The Dandy and the Herald: Manners, Mind and Morals from Brummell to Durrell (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988), 13.
192. See also James Adams, Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles of Victorian Masculinity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995);
193. Rhonda Garelick, Rising Star: Dandyism, Gender, and Performance in the Fin de Siècle (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
194. Pine, Dandy, 12. The historic relation between dandyism and heraldry was hardly so schematic or teleological. Indeed, Pine described the emergence of the "heraldic dandy," who simultaneously focused on the self and attempted to speak to society (Pine, Dandy, 13).
195. While modernism in Europe is often dated to the late nineteenth century, according to local art historian Nancy Moure, modernist art arrived in Southern California in the 1910s, but was not encouraged there until the 1920s. Moure, Painting and Sculpture, 28-30.
196. Feitelson to Millier, June 1950, roll 1103, FLP (italics added). See also Sheets, Karlstrom interview, 28 October 1986, 82-92; Paul Karlstrom, "Introduction," in On the Edge, ed. Karlstrom, 4.
197. Karlstrom and Ehrlich, Turning the Tide, 53-54.
198. Grace Clements, -but is it ART? unpublished memoir [1968?], 15-16, 18-19, in David W. Forsberg Papers, Reel 4048, AAA (emphasis in original).
199. Stanton Macdonald-Wright, A Treatise on Color (Los Angeles, 1924), 27- 28, in The Art of Stanton Macdonald-Wright (Washington, DC: National Collection of Fine Arts, Smithsonian Institution, 1967), as cited in Karlstrom and Ehrlich, Turning the Tide, 93. Mabel Alvarez cited in Smith, Utopia and Dissent, 6-7. Francis O'Connor to Lorser Feitelson, 1 June 1964; Feitelson to O'Connor, 3 June 1964, both in Roll 1103, FLP.
200. Karlstrom and Ehrlich, Turning the Tide, 57-62, 84-88.
201. See also Susan Anderson, "Journey into the Sun: California Artists and Surrealism," in On the Edge, ed. Karlstrom, 183-191.
202. Americans 1942: 18 Artists from 9 States (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1942), 93, as cited in Karlstrom and Ehrlich, Turning the Tide, 84. Lorser Feitelson, "What Is Postsurrealism?" Spanish Village Art Quarterly, Spring 1941; Harry Muir Kurtzworth, "Art Comment," Saturday Night, 2 January 1937; Images from Elizabeth Mills, "Catastrophic Division," reprinted in "The Post Surrealists Are at It Again," Los Angeles Evening Herald and Express, 22 Jan. 1938; all in roll 1103, FLP. See also Smith, Utopia and Dissent, 9-13.
203. Bram Dijkstra, "Early Modernism in Southern California: Provincialism or Eccentricity?" in Edge of America, ed. Karlstrom, 161. For some of the breadth of California abstraction, see Susan Landauer, "Painting under the Shadow: California Modernism and the Second World War," in the same volume.
204. Robert Brophy, "Robinson Jeffers," in Dictionary of Literary Biography, 2d ser., vol. 212, Twentieth-Century American Western Writers, ed. Richard Cracroft (Detroit: Gale Group, 1999), 144; William Van Wyck, Robinson Jeffers (Los Angeles: Ward Ritchie Press, 1938), 9.
205. Ward Ritchie, I Remember Robinson Jeffers (Los Angeles: Zamorano Club, 1978), 2, 4-6; Lawrence Powell, "Homage to the Big Sur," in Books West Southwest: Essays on Writers, Their Books, and Their Land (Los Angeles: Ward Ritchie Press, 1957), 95; Robinson Jeffers, "First Book," The Colophon: A Book Collectors' Quarterly (Part Ten), 1932; Louis Adamic, Robinson Jeffers: A Portrait (Seattle: University of Washington Bookstore, 1929); Van Wyck, Robinson Jeffers.
206. Powell, Looking Back, 95.
207. Dailey, "Art," 39. Sheets, Karlstrom interview, 28 October 1986, 27-29. On California painting generally, see Moure, Painting and Sculpture; Patricia Trenton and William Gerdts, California Light, 1900-1930 (Laguna Beach, CA: Laguna Art Museum, 1990); Susan Landauer, Donald Keyes, and Jean Stern, California Impressionists (Atlanta: Georgia Museum of Art and University of Georgia Press, 1996); and Jean Stern, Bolton Colburn, and Susan Anderson, Impressions of California: Early Currents in Art, 1850-1930 (Irvine, CA: Irvine Museum, 1996).
208. Sheets, Karlstrom interview, 28 October 1986, 27-29, 52.
209. Dailey, "Art," 40; Karlstrom and Ehrlich, Turning the Tide, 29; Cox, Artas- Politics, 20-21. See Sheets's Angel's Flight (1931) or Tenement Flats (1934).
210. Thurman Wilkins, "At the Sign of the Petrel," VO Magazine 4 (March 1936), 38-39, file 16, box 12, PLP.
211. Clements, -but is it ART? 23; Stanton Macdonald-Wright, "Art," Rob Wagner's Script, 21 October 1944, in Roll 1103, FLP. See Edwyn Hunt, "Sanity in Art," California Arts and Architecture, November 1939.
212. Cox, Art-as-Politics, 7, 19.
213. Clements, -but is it ART? 30, 31, 41, 43, 55, 57. On the history of the John Reed Clubs, and the League of American Writers, to whom Clements gave her speech, see Harvey Klehr, The Heyday of American Communism: The Depression Decade (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 72-77, 350-57; Alan Wald, Exiles from a Future Time: The Forging of the Mid-Twentieth-Century Literary Left (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Daniel Aron, Writers on the Left: Episodes in American Literary Communism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992).
214. Bella Lewitzky, "Los Angeles in the '40s," lecture, San Francisco, 29 March 1985, tape recording, AAA.
215. Lewitzky, "Los Angeles."
216. Peter Krasnow, "Writings on Art, 1937-1938," 95-96, Peter Krasnow Papers, AAA.
217. Margarita Nieto, "Mexican Art and Los Angeles, 1920-1940," in On the Edge, ed. Karlstrom, 120-35; Shifra Goldman, "Siqueiros and Three Early Murals in Los Angeles," in Dimensions of the Americans: Art and Social Change in Latin America and the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 87-100; Fletcher Martin, interviewed by Joseph Trovato, 5 November 1964, 3, roll 3949, AAA.
218. Goldman, "Siqueiros"; Laurance Hurlburt, The Mexican Muralists in the United States (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1989), 206-13. Hurl burt titled the Chouinard mural Workers' Meeting. See also Arthur Millier, interviewed by Betty Hoag, 4 May 1965, 2:20-21, 3:1-2, AAA.
219. Nieto, "Mexican Art," 134. Herman Cherry, Interview with Herman Cherry, interviewed by Judd Tully, 8 May 1989, 98, AAA; Hurlburt, Mexican Muralists, 216.
220. Siqueiros also worked with a group called the "Block of Painters" that made portable murals about American antiblack racism. Martin, Trovato interview, 4; Millier, Hoag interview, 3:5; Clements, -but is it ART?; Dorr Bothwell, interviewed by Mary Fuller McChesney, 27 February 1965, AAA, 17.
221. Barbara Melosh, Engendering Culture: Manhood and Womanhood in New Deal Public Art and Theater (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), 4-5;
222. Andrew Hemingway, Artists on the Left: American Artists and the Communist Movement, 1926-1956 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 75-79.
223. Letterheads, Ben Messick Papers, Roll LA9, AAA; Sheets, Karlstrom interview, 28 October 1986, 88-90; Merle Armitage, Merle Armitage Oral History, interviewed by Sylvia Loomis, 6 February 1964, 6, AAA.
224. Letterheads, Messick Papers; Macdonald-Wright to King, 18 April 1938, Roll LA6, AAA; "List of People Present at the Meeting Held on Oct. 27, 1937," Roll LA6, AAA; "Federal Art Project," brochure, Albert King Papers, Roll LA5, AAA. Buckley MacGurrin, also an Edendale resident, was hired through the FAP to do murals for the offices of the county supervisors and became an FAP supervisor (Buckley MacGurrin Papers, Roll LA2, AAA).
225. Conrad Buff, interviewed by Betty Hoag, 21 May 1965, 2:6, AAA; Bothwell, McChesney interview, 10-11.
226. "Data on the World's Largest Texturalized Mosaic," Roll LA6, AAA. The FAP regularly used Gladding, McBean (King memo, 12 March 1937; invoice, 24 April 1937; Gladding, McBean to FAP, 7 February 1938, Roll LA6, AAA).
227. Millier, Hoag interview, 2:5-16, AAA. Sheets remembered ninety on the PWAP, while Armitage said 125 (Sheets, Karlstrom interview, 28 October 1986, 88; Armitage, Merle Armitage, 6).
228. Dorothy Jeakins, interviewed by Betty Hoag, 19 June 1964, 2, 13, AAA; Anton Blazek, interviewed by Betty Hoag, 13 April 1965, 2:12, AAA; David Rose, interviewed by Betty Hoag, Los Angeles, 28 March 1965, 21-22, AAA.
229. Lorser Feitelson, interviewed by Betty Hoag, 9 May 1964, A:17, B:6, roll 3419, AAA.
230. Cherry also met his first wife, Denny Winters, on the FAP. Cherry, Interview; Herman Cherry, interviewed by Harlan Phillips, September 1965, 12, 22, Roll 3949, AAA. On different reactions to FAP, see Bothwell, McChesney interview, 11-12; Nick Brigante, interviewed by Betty Hoag, 25 May 1964, 15, AAA.
231. Sheets, Karlstrom interview, 28 October 1986, 88-90;
232. Ames, Hoag interview, 1:22.
233. Sueo Serisawa to Paul Landacre, 1944; Sueo Serisawa to Landacres [1944], both in file 5, box 6, PLP.
234. Ritchie, "Rare Edition," 16-17. Note that while the essay as a whole was published in 1980, Ritchie quotes within it from an essay he had started years earlier but never completed. This passage is from that section.
235. "The WPA Federal Art Project, a Summary of Activities and Accomplishments," as quoted in Dailey, "Art," 40; Cherry, Philips interview, 5-8. See also Arthur and Jean Goodwin Ames, interviewed by Betty Hoag, 9 June 1965, 2:3, AAA.
236. Sheets, Karlstrom interview, 28 October 1986, 90; Armitage, Merle Armitage, 13-15.
237. "Furor Stirred by Noted Artist's Paintings at School Depicting War and Greed," LAT, 24 July 1935; "Art Out of Place," LAT, 27 July 1935; Clements to Art Front, February 1936, quoted in Clements, -but is it ART? 37-38; Arthur Millier, "Brush Strokes," LAT, 25 August 1935, and "Mural Row Due to Artists' Failure to Understand Job," LAT, 25 August 1935. See also Arthur Millier, "Murals and Monuments Multiply with Federal Aid," LAT, 1 April 1934, and "Current Year Notable for Important Mural Paintings," LAT, 8 July 1934.
238. Historians disagree about the experience of Los Angeles during the Great Depression. For the argument that the city numbered among the most depressed in the nation, see Kevin Starr, Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 165; William H. Mullins, The Depression and the Urban West Coast, 1929-1933: Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle and Portland (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1991), 5. For the counter rgument, see Leonard Joseph Leader, "Los Angeles and the Great Depression" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1972), x; Greg Hise, "Industry and Imaginative Geographers," in Metropolis in the Making, ed. Sitton and Deverell, 21, 36.
239. While state hostility to homosexuality is a familiar theme in gay historiography, it has rarely been treated as significant in broader or more traditional political histories. The gay historiography that deals with state hostility is broad, ranging from Bérubé, Coming Out, to Chauncey, Gay New York; Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., 2nd ed. (New York: Meridian, 1992); Kennedy and Davis, Boots of Leather; and Stein, City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves.
240. Chauncey, Gay New York, 320-321, 353.
241. "Night Club Reviews: La Boheme," Variety, 4 October 1932, 52.
242. "Night Club Reviews: Club New Yorker," Variety, 4 October 1932, 52-53.
243. "Night Club Reviews: B.B.B.'s Cellar," Variety, 4 October 1932, 53. B.B.B. was Bobby Burns Berman, who was the emcee. See "Coast Raid on Panze Joints," Variety, 4 October 1932, 52.
244. Hamilton, "I'm the Queen," 116. These notions of the erotics of drag performances are explored more fully in Elizabeth Drorbaugh, "Sliding Scales: Notes on Storme DeLarverie and the Jewel Box Revue, the Cross-Dressed Woman on the Contemporary Stage, and the Invert," in Crossing the Stage, ed. Ferris, 36-37; Steven Schacht, "Beyond the Boundaries of the Classroom: Teaching about Gender and Sexuality at a Drag Show," in "The Drag Queen Anthology: The Absolutely Fabulous but Flawlessly Customary World of Female Impersonators," ed. Steven Schacht and Lisa Underwood, special issue, Journal of Homosexuality 46, nos. 3-4 (2004): 231-36; Laurence Senelick, The Changing Room: Sex, Drag and Theatre (New York: Routledge, 2000), 12; Boyd, Wide-Open Town, 30-38.
245. Boyd, Wide-Open Town, 47-52; Johnson, "Kids," 112; "Five Men Held as Vagrants in Hollywood Raids," 21 May 1933, "Posing as Women Gets 3 Men Terms," 26 May 1933, both in LAE.
246. "Four Arrested in Hollywood Resort Raids," 27 May 1933, "Fists, Knife, Clubs Fly in Resort Raid," 19 September 1932, "Impersonators Banned by Police," 6 September 1933, "Permit Denied Dancing Café," 16 August 1933, all in LAE.
247. "Coast Raid on Panze Joints," Variety, 4 October 1932, 52.
248. For a recent engaging account of the recall in historical perspective, see Tom Sitton, Los Angeles Transformed: Fletcher Bowron's Urban Reform Revival, 1938-1953 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005).
249. Clinton's biographical synopsis comes from Chamberlain, "Civic Committee"; Caplan, "CIVIC Committee"; Viehe, "Recall"; and Sitton, "Urban Politics." Similar accounts appear in Starr, Dream Endures, 164-70; Michael Woodiwiss, Crime, Crusades, and Corruption: Prohibitions in the United States, 1900-1987 (London: Pinter, 1988); and Guy Finney, Angel City in Turmoil: A Story of the Minute Men of Los Angeles in their War on Civic Corruption, Graft and Privilege (Los Angeles: Amer Press, 1945).
250. Caplan, "CIVIC Committee," 8, 9, 20-23. According to Mullins, when Shaw was a county supervisor in 1931, he fought for the removal of the then head of the hospital (Mullins, Depression and Urban West, 67-68).
251. Caplan, "CIVIC Committee," 1-3, 10-16, 25-31, 33. Sitton also argued that Clinton and Ford in fact lobbied Bowron to name him to the grand jury. Sitton, "Urban Politics," 166-67. Anti-gambling efforts were also under way in New York City, and the FBI's battles with the likes of Al Capone were memorialized by Hollywood throughout the decade. See Roger Sharpe, Pinball! (New York: Dutton, 1977), 43-54; John Springhall, "Censoring Hollywood: Youth, Moral Panic and Crime/Gangster Movies of the 1930s," Journal of Popular Culture 32 (1998): 135-155.
252. Caplan, "CIVIC Committee," 34-44, 58-60. According to the chair of the recall committee, when people were approached to sign the recall petition prior to the conviction of Earl Kynette, head of the suspect detective squad, 60 percent of them refused; afterward, 90 percent signed. See "Minutes of Committee of 25," 7 July 1938, item 110, box 134, DHP.
253. Historians have disagreed over whether Clinton or Shaw rightfully deserved to carry the day in the recall. For views of Clinton as the heroic reformer, see Caplan, "CIVIC Committee"; Finney, Angel City, 40-173; Starr, Dream Endures, 166-70. For accounts of Shaw as unfairly condemned by corrupt culprits, see Viehe, "Recall," 290; Woodiwiss, Crime, Crusades, 82-88.
254. Challenging mayors and police chiefs with accusations of vice was not new for Los Angeles, though the way sexual perversion came to operate in these campaigns was new. Gerald Wood explained that between 1915 and 1933, five Los Angeles mayors and a dozen police chiefs left office under a dark cloud of accusations (Wood, "A Penchant for Probity: California Progressives and the Disreputable Pleasures," in California Progressivism Revisited, ed. William Deverell and Tom Sitton [Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994], 109). See also Tom Sitton, "Did the Ruling Class Rule at City Hall in 1920s Los Angeles?" in Metropolis in the Making, ed. Sitton and Deverell.
255. Mason, author interview; Hay, author interview; "Los Angeles . . . 'America's Wickedest City' . . . Cleans Up Its Gambling, Graft and Girls Rackets," Look, 26 September 1939, 29, 30; Hollywood Citizen-News, 10 July 1937, reprint, WMC.
256. Photos in file 13, box 1, CCP. On figures, see CIVIC leaflet, file 12, box 1, CCP. Clifford Clinton, "The Truth Can Set You Free If Expressed in Votes," Shopping News, 7 August 1937, and Clinton, "The Truth Can Set You Free If Expressed in Votes," Shopping News, 28 August 1937, both in scrapbook 1, pp. 44, 45, box 11, CCP.
257. Dyer to Clinton, n.d., and Thompson to Clinton, n.d., both in file 30, "Shaw Recall-Letters Offering Help in Recall," box 3, CCP. Clinton to Bostwick, hand-written draft, on Bostwick to Clinton, 29 August 1938, file "Letters of Appreciation, Recall Election," box 24, CCP.
258. Croxall to Clinton, 19 September 1938, file "Letters of Appreciation, Recall Election," box 24, CCP.
259. During the summer of 1938, Shaw supporters published a bilingual English-Yiddish brochure demanding, "BOYCOTT Traitors [that is, Bowron] Who would take Nazi, Fascist and Ku-Klux Klan Money!" scrapbook 12, p. 9, CCP. Similarly, the election-week headline of a paper that alleged to speak for the black community charged, "Bowron's Backers Exposed: Does Bowron Offer Us 'Clean' Government-or-KLeAN Government?" Los Angeles Club Reporter, 15 September 1938, scrapbook 12, p. 12, CCP.
260. Leader, "Los Angeles," 178, 141. See also Upton Sinclair, I, Candidate for Governor and How I Got Licked (Los Angeles: End Poverty League, 1935); Paul Greenstein, Nigey Lennon, and Lionel Rolfe, Bread & Hyacinths: The Rise and Fall of Utopian Los Angeles (Los Angeles: California Classic Books, 1992).
261. Dwight McKinney and Fred Allhoff, "The Lid off Los Angeles, Part Three: The Spy Squad That Floored Uncle Sam," Liberty, 25November 1939, 24, file 7, box 2, CCP. Fainer quoted in, "Fainer Flays 'Brother Joe' in Bomb Case," and "Intelligence Squad Scored," both n.p., 9 June 1938, scrapbook 8, p. 9, box 13, CCP.
262. Anonymous to Clinton, n.d.; Lewis to Clinton, 5 May 1938; Z. Alexander to Clinton, 5 May 1938; Bennett to Clinton, 10 August 1938; all in file "CLINTON:-Letters of Abuse, Criticism, Advice, Apology 1938-9," box 25, CCP. S. M. Doyle, "Stalin and Clinton over Los Angeles," speech, 19 July 1940, delivered at Patriotic Hall, in Rev. Folder 1-1, WMC. For Bowron charges, see "Reiterates Charge Bowron Supported by Communists," Southwest News, scrapbook 11, p. 25, box 14, CCP; and "Reaction versus Liberalism," Allied Democrat, scrapbook 11, p. 6, box 14, CCP.
263. Files 14 and 15, box 3, CCP; Chamberlain, "Civic Committee," 63.
264. Leaflet, scrapbook 8, p. 43, CCP.
265. Clifford Clinton, "On Communist Charge," 1938, box 26, CCP. Paul Cline, executive secretary for the county Communist Party, also got on the radio to deny that the Party endorsed Judge Bowron or was "affiliated with the Federation for Civic Betterment, and we had no voice in the selection of Judge Bowron." Paul Cline, radio address, in Communist Party of Los Angeles brochure, scrapbook 11, p. 48, CCP.
266. Shuler to Wilkinson, 12 February 1938, file 9 "CIVIC-internal affairs," box 1, CCP.
267. Shuler to Wilkinson, 12 February 1938; Wilkinson to Shuler, 14 February 1938, both in file 9, box 1, CCP.
268. The Equalizer, September 1937, 4, folder 1-7, WMC. The paper was published in Los Angeles and its subhead read, "Hypocrites Are Those Who Do Not Fear God, But Do Fear Printer's Ink." Single issues also appear in the Shaw and Clinton papers.
269. Lee, "Everybody's Baby Estelle"; Milmar, author interview.
270. "170 Arrested in L.A. War on Vagrants," LAE, 10 February 1936.
271. Press releases, 20 July 1937, 26 July 1937, 30 August 1937, file "Campaign PR," box 8, JSP.
272. "Officials Pledge Aid to Sex Bureau Plan," 29 August 1937; "Law Agencies Will Discuss Sex Bureau," 1 September 1937; "Official Bureau," 3 September 1937 (italics added); all in LAE.
273. "Mayor Shaw Urges Police Sex Bureau," 16October 1937; "Action on Sex Bureau," 1 September 1938, both in LAE. Freedman also argues that the overlapping use of terms like "sex criminal," "pervert," "psychopath," and "homosexual" indicated that they mostly were used to mean "homosexual." See Freedman, " 'Uncontrolled Desires,' " 103.
274. "Psychiatrist, Sex, Bombing Case Engage Council," n.p., n.d. [April 1938?], scrapbook 6, p. 56, CCP.
275. Kevin Murphy, "The Manly World of Urban Reform: Political Manhood and the New Politics of Progressivism in New York City, 1877-1916" (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 2001), chaps. 1, 6.
276. Beverly Hills "housewife" to Clinton, 4 January 1938, file "CLINTON:- Letters of Abuse, Criticism, Advice, Apology 1938-9," box 25, CCP. On the growth of psychoanalytic thinking and practice in Los Angeles, which began with an informal study group in 1927, see Nathan G. Hale Jr., "New Heads for Freud's Hydras: Psychoanalysis in Los Angeles," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 37 (Spring 2001): 111-22. On 1930s masculinity, see Freedman, " 'Uncontrolled Desires,' " 88-90; Joseph Pleck, "The Theory of Male Sex Role Identity: Its Rise and Fall, 1936 to the Present," in In the Shadow of the Past: Psychology Portrays the Sexes, ed. Miriam Lewin (New York, 1983): 205-25; Peter Filene, Him/Her/Self: Gender Identities in Modern America, 3rd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
277. Highland Park Post Dispatch, 9 September 1937, scrapbook 11, p. 45, box 4, CCP.
278. Nielsen-Lange to Clinton, 1 August 1938, file "Letters of Appreciation, Recall Election," box 24, CCP.
279. "Black Reaction + Red Communism = Loathsome Fascism," Allied Democrat, 7 September 1938, 2, scrapbook 11, p. 47, box 14, CCP. Presumably a similar analysis could be made of a 13 September cartoon that appeared in the Times under the title "Strange Bedfellows!": it shows a racketeer, professional politician, radical, and CIO member all in a bed labeled "Shaw Recall Support," while a reformer sits on the floor claiming the bed is his own.
280. "Minutes of Committee of 25," 7 July 1938, item 110, box 134, DHP.
281. "Sex Crimes Clinic Opens," LAT, 30 July 1938; "Police Form Sex Offense Bureau Here," 30 July 1938, LAE. The Examiner pushed steadily, as well, for the city to register all "perverts," even those merely under advice or treatment from physicians. See "Menace to Society: Registration of Perverts Vital," 20 September 1940, LAE. On de River, see "Police Force's Psychiatrist to Be Investigated," LAT, 9 March 1949; "Dr. de River Held Needed by Police," LAT, 26 March 1949.
282. "Disturbing Figures," LAT, 22 April 1939; "Police Organize Sex Crime Unit," LAT, 28 April 1939; Ordinance 1380, Sec. 5238, Los Angeles City Council Minutes, vol. 287: p 412; "Sex Criminal Registration Plan Up Today," LAE, 23 September 1940; "Sex Offenders Must Register," LAT, 24 September 1940. "Megan's Law Calling Up Old, Minor Offenses," LAT, February 24, 1997; Lamberson and Doyle to Los Angeles City Council, 10 April 1940, and Hohmann to Board of Police Commissioners, 22 April 1940, both in City Council File 1380 (1940).
283. For a rare instance of oral sex involving a woman, see People v. Katherine Rayol, Crim. No. 3803, 65 Cal. App. 2d 462.
284. On institutionalization, see Freedman, " 'Uncontrolled Desires,' "; Chauncey, "Post-war Sex Crime," and Robertson, "Men from the Boys."
285. "Reporter's Transcript on Appeal," and "Respondent's Brief," The People, Respondent v. Edward Jones et al., Defendants; Fred Cabaney, Appellant, Crim. 3048, 25 Cal. App. 2d 517.
286. "Reporter's Transcript," 279, 281-303, 135, 137, 138, 144, filed for The People, Respondent v. Edward Jordan et al., Appellants, Crim. 351, Court of Appeal of California, 4th Appellate Dist., 24 Cal. App. 2d 39; 74 P.2d 519; 1937 Cal. App. LEXIS 20, in California State Archives, Sacramento.
287. "Reporter's Transcript," 129, 130-131, People, Respondent v. Jordan, Appellants.
288. Sentencing Document, People v. Jordan, Riverside Superior Court records.
289. Olga Martin, Hollywood's Movie Commandments: A Handbook for Motion Picture Writers and Reviewers (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1937), 180, as quoted in Anthony Slide, "The Silent Closet," 31. Martin was the former secretary of Joseph Breen, head of the Production Code Administration.
290. The decision was accompanied by bans on indecent songs or acts and the requirement that no performer come within four feet of a patron. "L.A. Cops Make It Tough for Swishes," Variety, 17 January 1940, 1.
291. "Eltinge Can't Wear Dresses for Café Act," Los Angeles Herald, 17 January 1940; "That Stuff Won't Go Here, Julian," Los Angeles Daily News, 17 January 1940; both in Eltinge clipping file at Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Beverly Hills, CA. Cohen, author interview. See also Minutes of Board of Police Commissioners, City of Los Angeles, 16 January 1940, in Los Angeles City Archives.
292. Cohen, author interview. Also see Lester Strong and David Hanna, "Hollywood Watering Holes, 30's Style," Harvard Gay & Lesbian Review (Summer 1996): 31.
293. "Eltinge Can't Wear Dresses"; "That Stuff." Gladys Bentley, the great lesbian drag star of Harlem, had her performances equally condemned and closed by the new Los Angeles code. She, unlike Eltinge, re-emerged in the 1950s, but then she played the public role of heterosexual housewife. See Minutes of Board of Police Commissioners, City of Los Angeles, 20 February 1940 and 26 March 1940, in Los Angeles City Archives. Also see Eric Garber, "Gladys Bentley: The Bulldagger Who Sang the Blues," Outlook 1 (1988): 52-61.
294. "Biographical Introduction," MBS; "Comrades at Brooks' Memorial Donate $52 to Movement," Western Worker, 31 January 1935; Letter from Bessie Brooks and Daughters, Daily Worker, 23 January 1935. On Boyle Heights, see John Laslett, "Historical Perspectives: Immigration and the Rise of a Distinctive Urban Region, 1900-1970," in Ethnic Los Angeles, ed. Roger Waldinger and Medhi Bozorgmehr (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 41.
295. Kevin Starr, Endangered Dreams: The Great Depression in California (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 131-155.
296. Greenstein, Bread and Hyacinths; California Communist Party, Two Decades of Progress: Communist Party, Los Angeles County, 1919-1939 (Los Angeles: Communist Party, Los Angeles County, Sept. 1939), 5; Mark Wild, Street Meetings: Multiethnic Neighborhoods in Early Twentieth-Century Los Angeles (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2005), chap. 7.
297. Gerald Horne, Class Struggle in Hollywood, 1930-1950: Moguls, Mobsters, Stars, Reds, and Trade Unionists (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), 20, 69.
298. Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century (New York: Verso, 1997), xviii.
299. Michael Furmanovsky, "Let's Free California Too: A Social and Political History of the Los Angeles California Communist Party," Ph.D. diss. draft, University of California, Los Angeles, 1986, chap. 1, p. 1. I am grateful for the opportunity to learn from Professor Furmanovsky's work. By contrast see Wild, Street Meetings, chap. 7; and Horne, Class Struggle.
300. Furmanovsky, "Let's Free California," chap. 1, 3-7.
301. Dennis, Autobiography, 19-26. For a broad history of Communist youth activities, see Mishler, Raising Reds.
302. George Kirchwey, A Survey of the Workings of the Criminal Syndicalism Law of California (Los Angeles: California Committee, American Civil Liberties Union, 1926);
303. Furmanovsky, "Let's Free California," chap. 1, 17-23; Dennis, Autobiography, 34-35; Yoneda, Ganbatte, 18.
304. Furmanovsky, "Let's Free California," chap. 2, 1-6; Dennis, Autobiography, 42-46; Dorothy Healey and Maurice Isserman, Dorothy Healey Remembers: A Life in the American Communist Party (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 44-45; Denning, Cultural Front, xiv.
305. Furmanovsky, "Let's Free California," chap. 2, 6-12; Wild, Street Meeting, 187-88; Dennis, Autobiography, 46-49; Sherman, author interview.
306. Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International, 1991), 29, 38-39; Horne, Class Struggle, 42-43, 62-63.
307. Raineri, Red Angel, 1-26; Furmanovsky, "Let's Free California," chap. 2, 6-10, and chap. 3; Dennis, Autobiography, 46-49.
308. Mark Wild, "A Rumored Congregation: Cross-Cultural Interaction in the Immigrant Neighborhoods of Early Twentieth Century Los Angeles" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 2000), 394 n. 67.
309. Miriam Brooks Sherman, Diary from Albany, NY to Los Angeles, Calif., folder "Miriam's Diary, Albany to LA, 1927," MBS.
310. Max Hilberman, interview with author, Malibu, 7 July 2005; Barbara Kaplan, interview with author, Los Angeles, 28November 2002; Stanley Schneider, interview with author, Los Angeles, 3 March 2000. Samuel Reisbord, an architect, was hired to work on the Moscow subway and then to build an automobile factory. Jeannette Reisbord was a writer and reporter. The Micheltorrena friends were schoolteachers, a profession that Jeannette Reisbord said was well represented in the neighborhood ( Jeannette Reisbord, interview with author, Los Angeles, 21 March 2000).
311. Hay, author interview. Miriam Sherman and her first husband moved back to the neighborhood in the late 1930s, in part to rejoin her family there and in part for cheap rent. Nevertheless, for several years Sherman and her family moved around the neighborhood without leaving it (Sherman, author interview).
312. Luba Perlin, interview with author, Los Angeles, March 1997. Max Hilberman, interview with author, 7 July 2005; Kaplan, author interview; Timmons, Trouble, 115. Jared Perlin was later blacklisted and worked on the film The Salt of the Earth. David Hilberman, who tried to organize the animators at Disney, was later named by Walt Disney as a Communist to the House Un- American Activities Committee. See Karl Cohen, Forbidden Animation: Censored Cartoons and Blacklisted Animators in America (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1997), chap. 5.
313. Timmons, Trouble, 115; Hay, author interview; Kaplan, author interview.
314. Isserman, Which Side, 36. Alice Greenfield McGrath, The Education of Alice McGrath, interviewed by Michael Balter (OHP, 1987), 84-85 (italics added); Dorothy Healey used the name "Red Gulch" to describe the neighborhood (Healey, author interview); "Mt. Moscow" from Hay, author interview; Morris Markoff recalled the phrase "Lenin's Hills" (Morris and Betty Markoff, interview with author, Los Angeles, 27 November 2002); Reisbord, author interview.
315. Sophia Lewis, interview with author, Los Angeles, March 1997.
316. McGrath, Education, 50-52.
317. George Charney, for instance, noted that a key reason for belonging to the Party "was the fact that I was in the company of my dearest friends." Jessica Mitford wrote about "the instant friendship based on mutual loyalties and shared dangers that one developed with fellow Communists, the total welcome and acceptance by complete strangers once one had established one's comradely credentials" (George Charney, A Long Journey [Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1968], 29; Jessica Mitford, A Fine Old Conflict [New York: Knopf, 1977], 236, both cited in Lyons, Philadelphia Communists, 67).
318. Eleanor Grossman (pseudonym), unpublished interview, details withheld at interviewee's request.
319. Sherman, author interview.
320. Klehr and Haynes, American Communist, 64-73, 81-84; Klehr, Heyday, 270-73; Denning, Cultural Front, 77-83. Isserman noted that the percentage of Jewish membership in the Party grew from 15 percent in the 1920s to 50 percent in the 1930s and '40s (Isserman, Which Side, 10).
321. Sherman, author interview; "County to Vote on Aspirants in 30 Legislative Districts," LAT, 25 August 1940.
322. Lyons, Philadelphia Communists, 61-64.
323. Sherman, author interview; Furmanovsky, "Let's Free California," chap. 2, 14-17. Sherman and her classmate Lillian Carlson were granted their high school diplomas only in 1990.
324. Sherman, author interview; Miriam Brooks Sherman, notebook, November 1932, folder "Miriam's Notebook on Trip to World Youth Conference in Moscow, November 1932," MBS; Furmanovsky, "Let's Free California," chap. 3, 36-37; Raineri, Red Angel, 37. For an analysis of the Ada Wright international speaking tour and the global movement on behalf of the Scottsboro Boys, see James Miller, Susan Pennybacker, and Eve Rosenhaft, "Mother Ada Wright and the International Campaign to Free the Scottsboro Boys," American Historical Review (April 2001): 387-431.
325. Gerber, author interview; Dennis, Autobiography, 60-62; Raineri, Red Angel, 43.
326. Eggan to Brooks, 3 September 1938; Eggan to Brooks, n.d., both in folder "Jack Eggan letters to Miriam Brooks from Spain, 1938," MBS; Sherman, author interview. When Morris Markoff moved to Echo Park from New York in 1936, three friends moved with him; one of them also died fighting in Spain (Markoffs, author interview).
327. Gerber, author interview.
328. Gerber, author interview.
329. Esther Asimow, interview with author, Los Angeles, 3 July 2005; Gerber, author interview. Reisbord, author interview (Jeanette and Sam Reisbord were later residents of the complex); Gebhard and Winter, Architectural Guide, 180. I am indebted to Raphael Simon, who opened up the world of Avenel to me and introduced me to the many people who lived there.
330. Before they moved into the Avenel co-op in the 1950s, Betty and Morris Markoff bought and shared a duplex in the neighborhood with another family, with whom they became intensely close (Markoffs, author interview).
331. Hilberman, author interview; Hay, author interview; "Echo Nursery School Seeks Fixed Site," LAT, 14 August 1945.
332. Asimow, author interview; Markoffs, author interview; "Lakeview Nursery School Notes Second Anniversary," LAT, 30 April 1948.
333. People's Educational Center, Fall Term 1946 Catalogue (Los Angeles: People's Educational Center, 1946), 1, 4, 6, 10, 14, 19, folder "People's Educational Center, 1940s," box 20, Organizational Papers Collection, SCL (the enrollment figure is handwritten in the catalogue of Sidney Davison, PEC director); Denning, Cultural Front, 70. Biberman was later jailed as one of the Hollywood Ten; his brother Edward, a painter, lived around the block from the Hays (Hay, author interview).
334. Sherman, author interview.
335. Markoffs, author interview.
336. East Hollywood CRC, "Everybody Loves Saturday Nite!" 22 August 1953, folder 20, box 12, CRC. East Hollywood CRC, "3 Good Reasons . . .," 10 May 1952; "1st Thanks-giving Birthday Party," 22 November 1952; "1952 Jamboree," 12 January 1952; all in folder 19, box 12, CRC.
337. Sherman, author interview.
338. Denning, Cultural Front, xv, 208-209. Eleanor Brooks to Esther, 4 February 1935; Eleanor Brooks, 20 February 1936, both in folder "Eleanor's Letters, 1932-1939," MBS.
339. House Committee on Un-American Activities, Communist Infiltration of the Hollywood Motion-Picture Industry-Part 9, 82d Cong., 2d sess., 1952, 4255, 4274. For the broader debates, see Howe and Coser, American Communist Party, chap. 7; Klehr, Heyday; Klehr and Haynes, American Communist; Draper, Roots. More interesting analyses appear in Daniel Aaron, Writers on the Left: Episodes in American Literary Communism (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961); Denning, Cultural Front; Hemingway, Artists on the Left.
340. Sherman, author interview; Healey, author interview.
341. Ed Cray, Ramblin' Man: The Life and Times of Woody Guthrie (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 101-40; Denning, Cultural Front, 264-269.
342. Ed Robbin, Woody Guthrie and Me: An Intimate Reminiscence (Berkeley: Lancaster-Miller, 1979), 31, as cited in Cray, Ramblin' Man, 140.
343. Robbin, Woody Guthrie, 32-33, 53, 59-61, 74, 101; Joe Klein, Woody Guthrie: A Life (New York: Knopf, 1980), 87-135. Nelson, Barrett, and Ruck, Steve Nelson, 246-247.
344. Woody Guthrie, "People's Songs," Sunday Worker, 13 March 1946, 7, cited in R. Serge Desinoff, Great Day Coming: Folk Music and the American Left (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 109. See also Cray, Ramblin' Man, 293-334.
345. Irwin Silber, Hootenanny at Carnegie Hall, Folkways Records, FN 2512 (Notes), 2-3, cited in Desinoff, Great Day, 114; Desinoff, Great Day, 110-15; Lieberman, "My Song Is My Weapon," xix.
346. Lieberman, "My Song Is My Weapon," 22-23; Timmons, Trouble, 127-30; Wolff to Goldstein, 7 August 1948, folder "People's Song-Finances-Late 1940s," William Wolff Collection, SCL; Card Catalogue, box 3, William Wolff Collection, SCL. Dorothy Healy kept a small songbook among her personal papers, America Sings . . ., that emphasized the same easy singing of the card catalogue (item 2, box 65, DHP).
347. Timmons, Trouble, 127-30; Hay, author interview.
348. Lieberman, "My Song Is My Weapon," 76, 81.
349. Healey, author interview; Mario Casetta, interviewed by Robbie Lieberman, 5 January 1983, cited in Lieberman, "My Song Is My Weapon," 117-118.
350. Peggy Dennis, "Memories from the '20's," in Red Diapers: Growing Up in the Communist Left, ed. Judy Kaplan and Linn Shapiro (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 18.
351. Lillian Carlson, "A California Girlhood," in Red Diapers, ed. Kaplan and Shapiro, 21.
352. As Jeff Goodwin, James Jasper, and Francesca Polletta write, "If emotions are intimately involved in the processes by which people come to join social movements, they are even more obvious in the on-going activities of the movements. The richer a movement's culture-with more rituals, songs, folktales, heroes, denunciation of enemies, and so on-the greater those pleasures." Goodwin, Jasper, and Polletta, "Why Emotions Matter," in Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements, ed. Jeff Goodwin, James Jasper, and Francesca Polletta (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 18.
353. Isidor Brooks to Bessie Brooks, 21 August 1927, folder 1, MBS.
354. "Comrades at Brooks' Memorial Donate $52 to Movement," Western Worker, 31 January 1935; Bessie Brooks and Daughters, letter, Daily Worker, 23 January 1935, both in folder 3, MBS.
355. Gornick, Romance, 213; Sherman, author interview. See also comments from Anthony Ehrenpreis in Gornick, Romance, 237.
356. Gornick, Romance, 65.
357. Gerber, author interview.
358. Dennis, Autobiography, 17.
359. Gornick, Romance, 57, 58, 59.
360. Healy, author interview; Sherman, author interview; Timmons, Trouble, 100.
361. Kaplan, author interview; Sherman, author interview.
362. Sherman, author interview; Raineri, Red Angel, 40; Dennis, Autobiography, 90-91; Healey and Isserman, Dorothy Healey Remembers, 89.
363. Sherman reported that the local party took up the question of "male chauvinism" early on, telling husbands they needed to contribute to maintaining their homes (Sherman, author interview). In Philadelphia, Lyons also found that most Party members either married other radicals or converted them to the Party after marriage; Lyons described similar strains in their marriages too (Lyons, Philadelphia Communists, 88, 90-91).
364. Sherman, author interview.
365. Kaplan, author interview; Healey and Isserman, Dorothy Healey Remembers, 88; Dennis, Autobiography, 42.
366. Kaplan, author interview; Gornick, Romance, 247-48. Dorothy Healeysimilarly commented that "there was no such thing as a division between your personal and your political life. Again, we didn't use terms like 'lifestyle' " (Dorothy Healey, Tradition's Chains Have Bound Us: Dorothy Healey, interviewed by Joel Gardner [OHP, 1982], I: 53).
367. Sherman, author interview; Healey, author interview; Healey and Isserman, California Red. Healey's and Sherman's attitudes echoed those in Philadelphia, where racism was also a magnetic issue. "A number of Jewish Communists [the majority in that study] speak of race relations as a primary cause of their radicalization and of the Party's antiracism as one of its primary attractions" (Lyons, Philadelphia Communists, 77).
368. Recent contributions to the racial history of Los Angeles include Douglas Monroy, Rebirth: Mexican Los Angeles from the Great Migration to the Great Depression (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999); Escobar, Race, Police; William Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe: The Rise of Los Angeles and the Remaking of its Mexican Past (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002); Lon Kurashige, Japanese American Celebration and Conflict: A History of Ethnic Identity and Festival in Los Angeles, 1934-1990 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002); Josh Sides, L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003); Eric Avila, Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight: Fear and Fantasy in Suburban Los Angeles (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2004); Douglas Flamming, Bound for Freedom: Black Los Angeles in Jim Crow America (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2005); and Wild, Street Meeting.
369. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s, 2d ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994), 4. Note that this emphasis on elites echoes Deverell's approach in Whitewashed Adobe.
370. Wild, Street Meeting, 38; Avila, Popular Culture, 20-21; Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe, 4.
371. Laslett, "Historical Perspectives," 55; Sides, L.A. City Limits, 43.
372. Flamming, 90-110, 117; Sides, L.A. City Limits, 8, 34.
373. Escobar, Race, Police, 166. Escobar pointed out that the census for 1940 gave an official figure of 133,000, as compared to 97,000 in 1930. Chicano scholars, however, estimated that the 1930 figure should have been closer to 190,000, and thus the 1940 figure would have been much larger than that. Starr, Embattled Dreams, 97; Carlos Navarro and Rodolfo Acuña, "In Search of Community: A Comparative Essay on Mexicans in Los Angeles and San Antonio," in 20th Century Los Angeles, ed. Klein and Schiesl, 200. On indifference as an act of violent forgetting, see Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe, and Monroy, Rebirth.
374. On the breadth of the Scottsboro campaign, see Miller, Pennybacker, and Rosenhaft, "Mother Ada Wright"; Klehr and Haynes, American Communist, 75-77; Klehr, Heyday, 324-43; Sherman, author interview.
375. C. A. Hathaway, "Who Are the Friends"; titles listed on back of J. S. Allen, "Smash the Scottsboro Lynch Verdict" (New York: Workers Library Publishers, April 1933), box 68a, DHP.
376. Sides, L.A. City Limits, 32; Healey, author interview.
377. Keith Collins, Black Los Angeles: The Maturing of the Ghetto, 1940-1950 (Saratoga, CA: Century Twenty One, 1980), 18-19; Sides, L.A. City Limits, 44.
378. Hollywood Anti-Nazi League to Ford, 24 December 1936, file 1936, folder B III 11 d, box 46, JAF. On racism in wartime propaganda, see John Dower, "Race, Language, and War in Two Cultures: World War II in Asia," in The War in American Culture: Society and Consciousness during World War II, ed. Lewis Erenberg and Susan Hirsch (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
379. Pitt and Pitt, Los Angeles, 204-205.
380. "Young Voters Paid Tribute," LAT, 13 June 1939. By 1941 FDR had joined Mayor Bowron and the leaders of three hundred other cities in setting aside a day for such an American declaration. See Neal to Ford, 8 February 1941, file 1941; Bowron proclamation, 31 March 1941, file 1941; and Ford to Governor Culbert Olson, 7 June 1939, file 1939; all in folder B IV 4 C, "I Am an American," box 71, JAF.
381. Bowron to Easter, 30 January 1939, file "Mayor's Personal, 1939, Jan- Feb," box 5, FBP.
382. Radio broadcast, Jewish-International Broadcasting Hour, 12 June 1939, file "Speeches," box 36, FBP; Pascoe, "Miscegenation Law," 48. Bowron made similar declarations about Japanese Americans, one of which was used by the Japanese American Citizens League in a brochure (Statement issued to JACL, 1 March 1939, file "Mayor's personal, 1939, March," box 5, FBP).
383. Ford to Yamato, 5 September 1935, file 1934, folder B IV 5 I bb, box 74, JAF; Ford to editors of DOHO: A Progressive Japanese Bi-Monthly for Equality, Peace and Progress, 19 August 1938, file 1938, folder B IV 5 I bb, box 74, JAF; Ford to Mellinkoff, 5 July 1940, file 1940, folder B IV 5 I cc, file 1940, box 75, JAF. See also two Ford autobiographies: John Anson Ford, Thirty Explosive Years in Los Angeles County (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1961); and John Anson Ford, Honest Politics My Theme: The Story of a Veteran Public Official's Troubles and Triumphs: An Autobiography (New York: Vantage Press, 1978).
384. John Anson Ford, "Superficial Democracy," 24 June 1941; John Anson Ford, "Racial Discrimination and War," 6 October 1942, both in file 1, folder A VI, box 2, JAF.
385. Arthur C. Verge, Paradise Transformed: Los Angeles during the Second World War (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1993), 22-27, 32.
386. Starr, Embattled Dreams, 63-64.
387. Escobar, Race, Police, 157; Verge, Paradise Transformed, 28, 33; Sides, L.A. City Limits, 37; Starr, Embattled Dreams, 68-69.
388. Sitton, Los Angeles Transformed, 65.
389. Mary Serisawa to Landacres, 4 May 1944; Mary Serisawa to Landacres, 16 July 1944; Sueo Serisawa to Landacres [1944]; all in file 5, box 6, PLP. See also "Sueo Serisawa: Exhibition, April 12 to May 8," brochure (Los Angeles: Dalzell Hatfield Galleries [1948]), file 5, box 6, PLP; Sueo Serisawa, interview with author, 17 May 2000; Lehman, Paul Landacre, 103.
390. Bowron address, 5 February 1942, cited in Modell, Economics and Politics, 184, and in Verge, Paradise Transformed, 41; Verge, Paradise Transformed, 39- 40; statement from Clifford N. Amsden, Secretary of the Los Angeles County Civil Service Commission, 28 January 1942, file 1942, folder B IV 5 I bb, box 74, JAF; Sitton, Los Angeles Transformed, 64.
391. Starr, Embattled Dreams, 36, chap. 2. Also see Modell, Economics and Politics, 14, 32-39; Tomas Almaguer, Racial Faultlines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994); Ichiro Mike Murasi, Little Tokyo: One Hundred Years in Pictures (Los Angeles: Visual Communications/Asian American Studies Central, 1983); Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971).
392. Modell, Economics and Politics, 6-7; Verge, Paradise Transformed, 40-41. For an analysis of how first-generation Japanese were tied to Japan, see Yuji Ichioka, "Japanese Immigrant Nationalism: The Issei and the Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1941," California History 69 (Fall 1990).
393. Gantner, "Regional Imagination," 231; Starr, Embattled Dreams, 92; Denning, Cultural Front, 450.
394. Sherman, author interview. On the history of ethnic Japanese labor and left activism, see Yoneda, Ganbatte; Wild, Street Meeting, chap. 7.
395. Sugahara to Ford, 20 May 1942, file 1942, folder B IV 5 I bb, box 74, JAF. On Sugahara, also see Kurashige, "Problem of Biculturalism," 1637.
396. Mexicans' and Mexican Americans' status in the country had long been framed as an international issue, as immigrants were alternately sought out as agricultural workers or deported as welfare burdens across the first half of the twentieth century. See Camille Guerrin Gonzalez, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900-1939 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994); and Escobar, Race, Police, 84-90. See also Los Angeles County Supervisor Harry Baine (Ford's predecessor) to Jensen, 14 November 1933, file 1933; W. W. Brown, Assistant to Commissioner of INS to Ford, 4 March 1935, file 1935, both in folder B IV 5 I dd, box 75, JAF; folder B IV 5 I dd, box 75, JAF. For a race analysis of the riots, see Escobar, Race, Police, and Mauricio Mazón, The Zoot-Suit Riots: The Psychology of Symbolic Annihilation (Austin: University of Texas, 1984.)
397. Escobar, Race, Police, 178; Stuart Cosgrove, "The Zoot-Suit and Style Warfare," Radical America 18 (1984), 39-50.
398. Escobar, Race, Police, 200, 208; Verge, Paradise Transformed, 56. Pitt and Pitt, Los Angeles, 472.
399. Ayres quoted in Escobar, Race, Police, 212; Carey McWilliams, "Testimony of Carey McWilliams," and Harry Hoijer, "The Problem of Crime among the Mexican Youth of Los Angeles," in "Meeting of Special Mexican Relations Committee of Los Angeles County Grand Jury," 8 October 1942, p. 22, file 1942, folder B IV 5 I dd, box 75, JAF. Verge, Paradise Transformed, 56; Escobar, Race, Police, 215-17.
400. Los Angeles Daily News, 11 November 1942; LAT, 20 April 1943; LAE, 30 April 1943; LAT, 25 May 1943; all cited in Escobar, Race, Police, 201. Pitt and Pitt, Los Angeles, 571; Escobar, Race, Police, 234-43; Starr, Embattled Dreams, 104-111.
401. Bowron to Davis, 18 June 1943.
402. "Fight for the Freedom"; "Session Seven: The Negro Nation," in "Study Outline Negro Liberation," 1-4.
403. Sherman, author interview; Lyons, Philadelphia Communists, 70-71; Isserman, Which Side, 10. Horne pointed out as well that the Party in California was, in terms of percentages, "probably more racially and ethnically diverse than any other party in California at that time" (Horne, Class Struggle, 66).
404. Susan Martin, interview with author, Los Angeles, 29 February 2000. Martin said of the male couple, "The impression I got was to leave them alone, don't make a big deal about this. I was sort of told to stay away, more for theirprivacy. 'Don't be curious.' My impression was they may have wanted it that way."
405. Schneider, author interview.
406. Sherman, author interview. She and Hay worked together on the Bimini Baths, and an open letter from Pettis Perry, a local and national Party leader, noted their efforts in spring 1946 (Perry to All Club Executive Committees and Sections, 7 May 1946, folder "Los Angeles Communist Party," Pamphlets Collection, SCL). Leonard noted a campaign at Bimini led by the local chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) in 1948 (Leonard, "Years of Hope," 292-294).
407. Denning, Cultural Front, 18; Escobar, Race, Police, 200, 208; Verge, Paradise Transformed, 56; Pitt and Pitt, Los Angeles, 472; Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee, The Sleepy Lagoon Case (Los Angeles: Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee, 1943), 24-25, folder "Sleepy Lagoon Case Pamphlets," Alice McGrath Collection, SCL.
408. Alice McGrath, "Sleepy Lagoon Chronology," author's collection. Alice McGrath, telephone interview with author, Ventura, CA, 3 November 2005.
409. Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee, Sleepy Lagoon, 15, 13-17, 18, 6, 8-11.
410. Escobar, Race, Police, 273, 276, 281.
411. Fletcher Bowron, remarks at Declaration of INTERdependence celebration, 4 July 1945, file "Remarks July-Dec 1945," box 34, FBP.
412. Frank Murphy, remarks, 4 July 1945, file 1945, folder B IV 5 J, box 76, JAF. On the high court, Murphy issued a famous dissent in the internment case Korematsu v. United States.
413. John Anson Ford, "For Us the Living: A Ten-Point Program for California and the Nation," 2d printing (Los Angeles, 1943), 18-19, file 1942, folder A V 1, box 2, JAF.
414. Escobar, Race, Police, 285. Note that Escobar did not use the internationalist framework. Instead he, in part, explained the forums as indicative of community- based, volitional developments by Mexican Americans themselves- their "growing political maturity, sophistication, and power." (Escobar, Race, Police, 254-55.)
415. Kurashige, Japanese American, 125; Leonard, "Years of Hope," 255, 304; Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Boston: Little, Brown, 1989), cited in Kurashige, Japanese American, 120.
416. Sides, L.A. City Limits, 52-54.
417. Sitton, Los Angeles Transformed, 82-88; Mobilization for Democracy, Los Angeles against Gerald L. K. Smith: How a City Organized to Combat Native Fascism! (Los Angeles: Mobilization for Democracy, [1945?]); Sherman, author interview. See also Glen Jeansonne, Gerald L. K. Smith: Minister of Hate (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988).
418. The list of cases is drawn from folder 22 "Case Files . . . Case Histories, 1948," box 1, CRC. See "Historical Sketch," CRC; and Horne, Communist Front? 45, 59, 320-37. Horne deemed the Los Angeles lawyers panel "probably the best in the organization" (331).
419. Leaflet for meeting 22 January 1952, folder 19, box 12, CRC. See various telegrams, 18 January 1952, folder 22, box 12, CRC. Also see Leonard, " 'In the Interest of All Races,' " on how the notion of equivalent racial status gained ground among Mexican American, Japanese American, and African American leaders during the war.
420. East Hollywood CRC, "Bomb Terror in L.A.!" leaflet, folder 19, box 12, CRC; Sides, L.A. City Limits, 102-3.
421. CRC, "Bomb Terror in L.A.!" The leaflet totaled five racial bombings in the prior eight months.
422. East Hollywood CRC, "A Call to Protest by the Emergency Committee against the Dunsmuir Bombings," meeting for 28 March 1952, folder 19, box 12, CRC; Sherman, author interview. Raphael Lemkin, the key lobbyist for the United Nations Genocide Convention, published the term "genocide" in 1944: see Barbara Crossette, "Salute to a Rights Campaigner Who Gave Genocide Its Name," NYT, 13 June 2001.
423. "Conference Minutes," June 1952, folder 20, box 20, CRC.
424. Horne, Communist Front? 55, 333. Josh Sides pointed out as well that blacks were drawn to the CRC and the Party after the war because it was effective and successful. A small group of African Americans were attracted "to the party's rhetorical commitment to racial equality and its aggressive protest tactics." Sides, L.A. City Limits, 141-42.
425. Campbell to Ford, 2 November 1943, file 1943, folder B IV 5 I cc, box 75, JAF.
426. Fletcher Bowron, remarks for testimonial, 3 November 1946, as reported in Los Angeles Japanese Daily News, 21 December 1946; Fletcher Bowron, remarks to the Los Angeles Kiwanis, 23 September 1946, both in file "Addresses- Remarks 1946," box 35, FBP.
427. Bowron to Foreman, Los Angeles County Grand Jury, 13 September 1946; and Bowron to DeWitt Wallace, 13 September 1946, both in file "Extra Copies July-Dec-1946," box 2, FBP.
428. Sitton, Los Angeles Transformed, 100-101, 108-17; Transcript of City Council meeting, 25 March 1947, file 1947, folder B III 11 d, box 46, JAF; Horne, Class Struggle, 56-57.
429. For an extended discussion of the housing battle, see Don Parson, "Los Angeles' 'Headline-Happy Public Housing War,' " Southern California Quarterly 65 (Fall 1983), 251-85, and Making a Better World: Public Housing, the Red Scare, and the Direction of Modern Los Angeles (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005).
430. "Librarian at UCLA Admits Red Sign-Up," 28 November 1951; "Ouster Asked for 2 More Teachers," 10 April 1953; "Ousted Teachers Begin Court Move," 22April 1953; "KTTV Newsreel Admitted as Evidence in Teacher Firing," 20 November 1953; "Teacher Ouster Suits Being Studied by Judge," 26 November 1953; all in LAT. Gerber, author interview.
431. Sherman remembered that her younger daughter used to encourage her parents to take Sunday drives in order to see if they could get the FBI to follow them and then try to lose them (Sherman, author interview).
432. "Information Bulletin 1," addressed "To the People/Echo Park Community," file 5, box 2, CRC. The incident is also noted in John D'Emilio, "Out of the Shadows: The Gay Emancipation Movement in the United States, 1940-1970" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1982), 146 n. 30, and dated January 27, 1952.
433. Bérubé, Coming Out.
434. Kinsey reported that while 50 percent of American men were exclusively heterosexual, 37 percent had post-adolescent homosexual experiences to orgasm and 10 percent had been more or less exclusively homosexual for three years (Alfred Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male [Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1949), 623, 650-51; Terry, American Obsession, 300).
435. Bérubé, Coming Out, 114, as quoted in Starr, Embattled Dreams, 85. See also Kepner, Loves of a Long-Time Activist; de Leigh, "1930s Bars"; Frisbie, "Talk."
436. "The Service Man's Guide to Los Angeles," ts., 23 January 1942, file 1924, box 150, FWP; Zsa Zsa Gershick, Gay Old Girls (Los Angeles: Alyson Books, 1998), 36-73; Kenney, Mapping, 37-38.
437. Gard, interview; Carol Gwen, The History of the Sunset Strip, ch. 4, www.sunsetstrip.com/history/4.html. Marlene Dietrich attended the club's opening ("Notables Attend Café Opening," LAT, 28 September 1941).
438. Tom Gibbons and Bob Clark, interview with author, Los Angeles, 5 April & 17 April 2000.
439. "Entrapment Letter (Los Angeles)," Correspondence Collection, Archival Collections, KI.
440. "Special Session to Deal with Sex Cases Urged," 22November 1949; "Four Official Groups Move on Problem of Sex Offender," 30 November, 1949; "Governor Calls State Parley to Tackle Sex Crime Problem," 2December 1949; "Death Penalty Urged for Child Molesters," 8 December 1949; "State Plans More Aid to Psychopaths," 10 December 1949; "Five Sex Crime Bills Get Warren Signature," 7 January 1950; "Study of Sex Crimes Ordered," 27 April 1950, all in LAT.
441. Kaplan, author interview. Jim Kepner was active in the Party in New York in the late 1940s and had several intense interviews about his sex life before being expelled as "an enemy of the people" (Ernie Potvin, "Kepner Remembered," ONE-IGLA Bulletin [Summer 1998]).
442. This idea that sexual identity formation worked in tandem with racial formation echoes the scholarship of Siobhan Somerville, Queering the Color Line: Race and the Invention of Homosexuality in American Culture (Chapel Hill, NC: Duke University Press, 2000); Lisa Duggan, Sapphic Slashers: Sex, Violence, and American Modernity (Chapel Hill, NC: Duke University Press, 2000); and Boyd, Wide-Open Town.
443. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00419.
444. Asked by D'Emilio what "gay life" was like at Stanford, Hay responded, "It was just sex, dear. But the point was it was pretty good. There was no such thing as gay life. Everybody was the same as everybody else, except you were different" (Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00403). Importantly, later in his life, Hay returned to a gendered view, ultimately that homosexuals existed as a kind of true third sex. See Timmons, Trouble.
445. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00419; Timmons, Trouble, 36, 43. Interestingly, the Chicago group was started by a German émigré, Henry Gerber, who brought German cultural ideas of sexuality and politics with him to the states. In Germany notions of a sexual identity were much more elaborated at that time than here; see Jonathan Ned Katz, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., 2d ed. (New York: Meridian, 1992), 385-397.
446. The closest term they had to "gay"-and apparently the essential term Hay came to learn in the 1930s-was of being "temperamental." And having a certain temperament, even a permanent one, was far from having an inherent identity. Hay also heard "sophisticated" and being "that way." Champ account in Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00419; Timmons, Trouble, chap. 3. For D'Emilio's interrogation of "gayness," see Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00425. On "temperamental," see Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00419, and Timmons, Trouble, 43.
447. Timmons, Trouble, 56-77.
448. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00404.
449. Anita Hay to Harry Hay, summer 1938, cited in Timmons, Trouble, 100; Hay, D'Emilio, tape 00404. At the time of their final separation, in the fall of 1951, Platky told Hay, "You know, I finally realized. You never married me, you married the Communist Party." Hay added later, "Which was probably true" (Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00427).
450. Ted Rolfs, interviewed by Len Evans, 1983, 37, in Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender Historical Society, San Francisco.
451. James Kepner, interviewed by John D'Emilio, Los Angeles, 27 September 1976, tape 00438, IGIC.
452. Kepner, author interview.
453. Kepner, D'Emilio interview, tape 00438.
454. Kepner, D'Emilio interview, tapes 00520, 00682.
455. Timmons, Trouble, 115; Hay, author interview, San Francisco, 6 April 2001; Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00404.
456. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00402.
457. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00427; Timmons, Trouble, 134-138.
458. Harry Hay, "Preliminary Concepts: International Bachelors' Fraternal Order for Peace & Social Dignity, Sometime Referred to as Bachelors Anonymous," in Hay, Radically Gay, 64-67. Note that the citations are to a draft Hay typed in July 1950; no copies of the 1948 version survive.
459. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00402. Not insignificantly, the Wallace campaign marked a new high-water mark for the presence of the Communist Party in presidential electoral politics. Thus, Hay's vision of a place for the Bachelors' society in mainstream politics may also have followed that lead.
460. Hay, "Preliminary Concepts," 70-75. Hay told D'Emilio he imagined the units "like the closed units we'd had in the Party for years, which I was very familiar with because I'd been in them" (Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00427).
461. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00427.
462. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00427.
463. Harry Hay et al., "Mattachine Society Missions and Purposes," April 1951, in Hay, Radically Gay, 131-132.
464. Hay et al., "Mattachine Society."
465. Timmons, Trouble, 146. On Bernhard, see Marilyn Sanders, "Zeitlin, Weston: Focusing on Film," n.p., n.d., folder 2d, box 144, JZP.
466. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00427.
467. Dorr Legg, interviewed by John D'Emilio, Los Angeles, 6 October 1976, tape 00418, IGIC; James Gruber, interviewed by John D'Emilio, Los Angeles, 29 December 1976, tape 00398, IGIC.
468. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00427; Gruber, D'Emilio interview, tapes 00428, 00398.
469. Kennedy and Davis, Boots of Leather, 65; Boyd, Wide-Open Town, 10; Stein, City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves, 93; D'Emilio, "Out of the Shadows," 67.
470. Kenneth Burns, interviewed by John D'Emilio, 10 January 1977, tape 00401, IGIC; Kennedy and Davis, Boots of Leather, 378.
471. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00420.
472. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00420; Timmons, Trouble, 151; Konrad Stevens, interviewed by John D'Emilio, Los Angeles, 5 January 1977, tape 00405, IGIC.
473. Gruber, D'Emilio interview, tape 00398; Legg, D'Emilio interview, tape 00418.
474. Stevens, D'Emilio interview, tape 00463.
475. D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, 68-69; Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00405.
476. Brissette, D'Emilio interview, tape 00429.
477. Stevens, D'Emilio interview, tape 00463; Kepner, D'Emilio interview, tape 00395.
478. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00420. On Mexican American identity, see Escobar, Race, Police.
479. "Information Bulletin 1."
480. "Joseph Harrison" to Myers, 28 April 1952, file 5, box 2, CRC; Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00420.
481. Citizens' Committee to Outlaw Entrapment, "An Anonymous Call to Arms," open letter [1952], file 5, box 2, CRC; "Harrison" to Myers, 28 April 1952. See also Citizens' Committee to Outlaw Entrapment, "Now Is the Time to Fight," leaflet [April-May 1952?], file 5, box 2, CRC.
482. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00405; Timmons, Trouble, 165; "Harry Hay Remembers Jim Kepner," ONE-IGLA Bulletin (Summer 1998).
483. Citizens' Committee, "Anonymous Call."
484. Jennings, "To Be Accused Is to Be Guilty," ONE Magazine (January 1953): 10-12.
485. Timmons, Trouble, 167; D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, 71.
486. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00406.
487. Paul Coates, "Well, Medium and Rare," Los Angeles Mirror, 12 March 1953, file "Mattachine Society: Early 1950s," ONE.
488. Stevens, D'Emilio interview, tape 00463; Coates, "Well, Medium and Rare."
489. D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, 89, 115.
490. James Reston, NYT, 18 May 1954, as cited in Jack Balkin, "Brown as Icon," in What Brown v. Board Should Have Said: The Nation's Top Legal Experts Rewrite America's Landmark Civil Rights Decision, ed. Jack Balkin (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 4. For a scathing critique of the "psychologistic" framing of the decision, see Donald Howie, "The Image of Black People in Brown v. Board of Education," Journal of Black Studies 3 (1973), 371-384.
491. Kenneth Clark, "The Brown Decision: Racism, Education, and Human Values," Journal of Negro Education 57 (1988), 128.
492. Richard King, Civil Rights and the Idea of Freedom (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 4-5.
493. See George Levesque, "A Reappraisal of Historical Consensus," Journal of the Early Republic 1 (1981), 269-287;
494. William Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965- "Basic Unity Program," 108-118;
495. Frantz Fanon, "Concerning Violence," 128- 32; all in Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan, ed. William Van Deburg (New York: New York University Press, 1997). On education, see, for instance, Sonia Jarvis, "Brown and the Afrocentric Curriculum," Yale Law Journal 101 (April 1992), 1285-1304.
496. Phelan, Identity Politics, 43, 58.
497. Elizabeth Armstrong, Forging Gay Identities: Organizing Sexuality in San Francisco, 1950-1994 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).
498. Hay, D'Emilio interview, tape 00405.
499. Stevens, D'Emilio interview, tape 00463; Hal Call, interviewed by John D'Emilio, San Francisco, 16 November 1976, tape 00443, IGIC.
500. D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, 77-84;
501. Timmons, Trouble, 177-180.
502. D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, 77;
503. Kepner, D'Emilio interview, tape 00395; Hal Call, D'Emilio interview, cited in John D'Emilio, "Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities," unpublished ts., 12 March 1981, chap. 3, p. 14, in IGIC.
504. Marilyn Rieger, "Delegates of the Convention . . .," 23 May 1953, in file "Mattachine of L.A., Inc.," ONE.
505. Rieger, "Delegates of the Convention."
506. Hay to Rowland, n.d. [March 1953], cited in D'Emilio, "Sexual Politics," ts., chap. 3, p. 4.
507. Call, D'Emilio interview, tape 00443.
508. Southern Area Council meeting minutes, 5October 1953, 2, in file, "Mattachine 1953-54," ONE; "The Mattachine Society Today-An Information Digest," 1954, Appendix II, 1, in file "Mattachine," ONE.
509. Timmons, Trouble, 157-160, 180; Hay, author interview; D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, 81. D'Emilio deemed Mattachine's rejection of Hay and the new leadership a tragic turn and a "retreat to respectability." Martin Meeker challenged this assessment, arguing for the efficacy of later Mattachine efforts, in "Behind the Mask of Respectability: Reconsidering the Mattachine Society and Male Homophile Practice, 1950s and 1960s," Journal of the History of Sexuality 10 (January 2001): 79.
510. Timmons, Trouble, 219-220; Jennings, author interview.
511. Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), esp. chaps. 3-6.
512. As Moira Kenney pointed out in 2001, Silver Lake, "by all accounts the second-largest (or densest) center of gay and lesbian culture in Los Angeles, reveals few traces of the community, apart from a half dozen bars and clubs" that hardly advertise their presence. It never took on the appearance or narrowly circumscribed commercial life of West Hollywood, Los Angeles' more typical "gay ghetto" (Kenney, Mapping, 195).
513. Skrentny, Minority Rights Revolution.
514. Zaretsky, Capitalism, Family, Personal Life, 9-10, 30, 76, chap. 4.