Pyrogeography and the global quest for sustainable fire management

Annual Review of Environment and Resources

Volumn 38, Issue , 2013, Pages 57-80

  Bowman, David M J S ^a   O'Brien, Jessica A ^b   Goldammer, Johann G ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA   (Australia)

^b MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR CHEMISTRY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Anthropocene; climate change; fire ecology; greenhouse gas pollution; smoke; wildfire; wildland urban interface

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; BIOGEOCHEMISTRY; ECOSYSTEMS; FIRE PROTECTION; FIRES; FOSSIL FUELS; GREENHOUSE GASES; PHASE INTERFACES; SMOKE;

ANTHROPOCENE; BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE; ECOSYSTEM SERVICES; FIRE ECOLOGY; PYROGENIC EMISSIONS; SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE; WILDFIRE; WILDLAND URBAN INTERFACE;

CLIMATE CHANGE;

EID: 84887487875     PISSN: 15435938     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-082212-134049     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Goldammer JG, Stocks BJ. 2011. Migration and global environmental change. SR10: Specification for a state of science review-wildland fires. UK Gov. Off. Sci., London. 25 pp.
2. Crutzen PJ, Goldammer JG, eds. 1993. Fire in the Environment: The Ecological, Atmospheric and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires. Dahlem Workshop Reports: Environmental Sciences Research Reports 13. Chichester: Wiley
3. Pyne SJ. 1994. Maintaining focus: an introduction to anthropogenic fire. Chemosphere 29:889-911
4. Pyne SJ. 2007. Problems, paradoxes, paradigms: triangulating fire research. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 16:271-76 (Pubitemid 47143514)
5. Bowman DMJS, Balch J, Artaxo P, Bond WJ, Cochrane MA, et al. 2011. The human dimension of fire regimes on Earth. J. Biogeogr. 38:2223-36
6. Pyne SJ. 2001. Fire: A Brief History. Seattle: Univ. Wash. Press
7. Pyne SJ. 2004. Pyromancy: reading stories in the flames. Conserv. Biol. 18:874-77 (Pubitemid 39059143)
8. Pyne SJ. 2009. The human geography of fire: a research agenda. Prog. Hum. Geogr. 33:443-46
9. Kirk D. 1996. Demographic transition theory. Popul. Stud. 50:361-87 (Pubitemid 126629012)
10. Csiszar I, Denis L, Giglio L, Justice CO, Hewson J. 2005. Global fire activity from two years of MODIS data. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 14:117-30 (Pubitemid 40938617)
11. Justice CO, Smith R, Gill AM, Csiszar I. 2003. A review of current space-based fire monitoring in Australia and the GOFC/GOLD program for international coordination. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 12:247-58 (Pubitemid 38135370)
12. Kitzberger T, Swetnam TW, Veblen TT. 2001. Inter-hemispheric synchrony of forest fires and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 10:315-26
13. van der Werf GR, Randerson JT, Giglio L, Gobron N, Dolman AJ. 2008. Climate controls on the variability of fires in the tropics and subtropics. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 22:GB3028
14. Korontzi S, McCarty J, Loboda T, Kumar S, Justice C. 2006. Global distribution of agricultural fires in croplands from 3 years of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 20:GB2021
15. Krawchuk MA, Moritz MA. 2011. Constraints on global fire activity vary across a resource gradient. Ecology 92:121-32
16. Pausas JG, Paula S. 2012. Fuel shapes the fire-climate relationship: evidence from Mediterranean ecosystems. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 21:1074-82
17. Meyn A, White PS, Buhk C, Jentsch A. 2007. Environmental drivers of large, infrequent wildfires: the emerging conceptual model. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 31:287-312 (Pubitemid 47098979)
18. Glasspool IJ, Edwards D, Axe L. 2004. Charcoal in the Silurian as evidence for the earliest wildfire. Geology 32:381-83 (Pubitemid 38653075)
19. Scott AC. 2000. The Pre-Quaternary history of fire. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoecol. 164:281-329 (Pubitemid 32044964)
20. Scott AC, Glasspool IJ. 2006. The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:10861-65 (Pubitemid 44148386)
21. Bond WJ, Scott AC. 2010. Fire and the spread of flowering plants in the Cretaceous. New Phytol. 188:1137-50
22. Bond WJ, Midgley JJ. 2012. Fire and the angiosperm revolutions. Int. J. Plant Sci. 173:569-83
23. Crisp MD, Burrows GE, Cook LG, Thornhill AH, Bowman D. 2011. Flammable biomes dominated by eucalypts originated at the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary. Nat. Commun. 2:193
24. He T, Lamont BB, Downes KS. 2011. Banksia born to burn. New Phytol. 191:184-96
25. He TH, Pausas JG, Belcher CM, Schwilk DW, Lamont BB. 2012. Fire-adapted traits of Pinus arose in the fiery Cretaceous. New Phytol. 194:751-59
26. Romme WH, Boyce MS, Gresswell R, Merrill EH, Minshall GW, et al. 2011. Twenty years after the 1988 Yellowstone fires: lessons about disturbance and ecosystems. Ecosystems 14:1196-215
27. Griffiths AD, Christian KA. 1996. The effects of fire on the frillneck lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii) in northern Australia. Aust. J. Ecol. 21:386-98
28. Lyon L, Telfer E, Schreiner D. 2000. Direct effects of fire and animal responses. In Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Effects of Fire on Fauna. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42 1:17-23. Ogden, UT: USDA, For. Serv., Rocky Mt. Res. Stn.
29. Allred BW, Fuhlendorf SD, Engle DM, Elmore RD. 2011. Ungulate preference for burned patches reveals strength of fire-grazing interaction. Ecol. Evol. 1:132-44
30. Bond W, van Wilgin BW. 1996. Fire and Plants. London, UK: Chapman & Hall. 263 pp.
31. Chuvieco E, Giglio L, Justice C. 2008. Global characterization of fire activity: toward defining fire regimes from Earth observation data. Glob. Change Biol. 14:1488-502 (Pubitemid 351796634)
32. Beerling DJ, Osborne CP. 2006. The origin of the savanna biome. Glob. Change Biol. 12:2023-31 (Pubitemid 44565991)
33. Keeley JE, Rundel PW. 2005. Fire and the Miocene expansion of C4 grasslands. Ecol. Lett. 8:683-90
34. Bond WJ, Woodward FI, Midgley GF. 2005. The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire. New Phytol. 165:525-38 (Pubitemid 40180747)
35. Hoffmann WA, Geiger EL, Gotsch SG, Rossatto DR, Silva LCR, et al. 2012. Ecological thresholds at the savanna-forest boundary: how plant traits, resources and fire govern the distribution of tropical biomes. Ecol. Lett. 15:759-68
36. Murphy BP, Bowman DMJS. 2012. What controls the distribution of tropical forest and savanna? Ecol. Lett. 15:748-58
37. Staver AC, Archibald S, Levin SA. 2011. The global extent and determinants of savanna and forest as alternative biome states. Science 334:230-32
38. Warman L, Moles A. 2009. Alternative stable states in Australia's wet tropics: a theoretical framework for the field data and a field-case for the theory. Landsc. Ecol. 24:1-13
39. Wood SW, Bowman D. 2012. Alternative stable states and the role of fire-vegetation-soil feedbacks in the temperate wilderness of southwest Tasmania. Landsc. Ecol. 27:13-28
40. Jackson WD. 1968. Fire, air, water and earth-an elemental ecology of Tasmania. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust. 3:9-16
41. Kimber R. 1983. Black lightning: Aborigines and fire in central Australia and the western desert. Archaeol. Ocean. 18:38-45
42. Berna F, Goldberg P, Horwitz LK, Brink J, Holt S, et al. 2012. Microstratigraphic evidence of in situ fire in the Acheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109:E1215-20
43. Roebroeks W, Villa P. 2011. On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108:5209-14
44. Sandgathe DM, Dibble HL, Goldberg P, McPherron SP, Turq A, et al. 2011. Timing of the appearance of habitual fire use. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108:E298
45. Organ C, Nunn CL, Machanda Z, Wrangham RW. 2011. Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108:14555-59
46. Power M, Marlon J, Ortiz N, Bartlein P, Harrison S, et al. 2008. Changes in fire regimes since the Last Glacial Maximum: an assessment based on a global synthesis and analysis of charcoal data. Clim. Dyn. 30:887-907
47. Goldammer JG, Seibert B. 1989. Natural rain forest fires in eastern Borneo during the Pleistocene and Holocene. Naturwissenschaften 76:518-20 (Pubitemid 20042727)
48. McWethy DB, Whitlock C, Wilmshurst JM, McGlone MS, Fromont M, et al. 2010. Rapid landscape transformation in South Island, New Zealand, following initial Polynesian settlement. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107:21343-48
49. Perry GLW, Wilmshurst JM, McGlone MS, McWethy DB, Whitlock C. 2012. Explaining fire-driven landscape transformation during the initial burning period of New Zealand's prehistory. Glob. Change Biol. 18:1609-21
50. Aldersley A, Murray SJ, Cornell SE. 2011. Global and regional analysis of climate and human drivers of wildfire. Sci. Total Environ. 409:3472-81
51. Gammage B. 2011. The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines Made Australia. Melbourne: Allen & Unwin. 384 pp.
52. Mooney SD, Harrison SP, Bartlein PJ, Daniau AL, Stevenson J, et al. 2011. Late Quaternary fire regimes of Australasia. Quat. Sci. Rev. 30:28-46
53. Rule S, Brook BW, Haberle SG, Turney CSM, Kershaw AP, Johnson CN. 2012. The aftermath of megafaunal extinction: ecosystem transformation in Pleistocene Australia. Science 335:1483-86
54. Bird RB, Bird DW, Codding BF, Parker CH, Jones JH. 2008. The "fire stick farming" hypothesis: Australian Aboriginal foraging strategies, biodiversity, and anthropogenic fire mosaics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:14796-801
55. Murphy B, Bowman DMJS. 2007. The interdependence of fire, grass, kangaroos and Australian Aborigines: a case study from central Arnhem Land, northern Australia. J. Biogeogr. 34:237-50 (Pubitemid 46143981)
56. Trauernicht C, Murphy BP, Portner TE, Bowman DMJS. 2012. Tree cover-fire interactions promote the persistence of a fire-sensitive conifer in a highly flammable savanna. J. Ecol. 100:958-68
57. Bowman DMJS, Walsh A, Prior LD. 2004. Landscape analysis of Aboriginal fire management in central Arnhem Land, north Australia. J. Biogeogr. 31:207-23 (Pubitemid 38272244)
58. Laris P. 2002. Burning the seasonal mosaic: preventative burning strategies in the wooded savanna of southern Mali. Hum. Ecol. 30:155-86 (Pubitemid 34724989)
59. 2 emissions from forest loss. Nat. Geosci. 2:737-38
60. Ruddiman WF. 2003. The anthropogenic greenhouse era began thousands of years ago. Clim. Change 61:261-93 (Pubitemid 38051214)
61. Ellis EC, Goldewijk KK, Siebert S, Lightman D, Ramankutty N. 2010. Anthropogenic transformation of the biomes, 1700 to 2000. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 19:589-606
62. Mertz O, Padoch C, Fox J, Cramb RA, Leisz SJ, et al. 2009. Swidden change in Southeast Asia: understanding causes and consequences. Hum. Ecol. 37:259-64
63. Reyes-Garćia V, Vadez V, Mart́iN, HuancaT, Leonard WR, TannerS.2008. Ethnobotanical knowledge and crop diversity in swidden fields: a study in a native Amazonian society. Hum. Ecol. 36:569-80
64. Lauk C, Erb KH. 2009. Biomass consumed in anthropogenic vegetation fires: global patterns and processes. Ecol. Econ. 69:301-9
65. Marlon JR, Bartlein PJ, Carcaillet C, Gavin DG, Harrison SP, et al. 2008. Climate and human influences on global biomass burning over the past two millennia. Nat. Geosci. 1:697-702
66. Crutzen PJ. 2002. Geology of mankind. Nature 415:23 (Pubitemid 34062429)
67. Vince G. 2011. An epoch debate. Science 334:32-37
68. van der Werf GR, Randerson JT, Giglio L, Collatz GJ, Kasibhatla PS, Arellano AF. 2006. Interannual variability in global biomass burning emissions from 1997 to 2004. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 6:3423-41 (Pubitemid 44272961)
69. Page SE, Siegert F, Rieley JO, Boehm HDV, Jaya A, Limin S. 2002. The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997. Nature 420:61-65 (Pubitemid 35291438)
70. Houghton RA. 2003. Revised estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use and land management 1850-2000. Tellus B 55:378-90 (Pubitemid 36610979)
71. Bond TC, Streets DG, Yarber KF, Nelson SM, Woo J-H, Klimont Z. 2004. A technology-based global inventory of black and organic carbon emissions from combustion. J. Geophys. Res. 109:D14203 (Pubitemid 39366556)
72. Andreae MO, Rosenfeld D. 2008. Aerosol-cloud-precipitation interactions. Part 1. The nature and sources of cloud-active aerosols. Earth-Sci. Rev. 89:13-41
73. Flannigan MD, Krawchuk MA, de Groot WJ, Wotton BM, Gowman LM. 2009. Implications of changing climate for global wildland fire. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 18:483-507
74. Shindell DT, Faluvegi G. 2009. Climate response to regional radiative forcing during the twentieth century. Nat. Geosci. 2:294-300
75. Goetz SJ, Mack MC, Gurney KR, Randerson JT, Houghton RA. 2007. Ecosystem responses to recent climate change andfire disturbance atnorthern high latitudes: observations and model results contrasting northern Eurasia and North America. Environ. Res. Lett. 2:045031
76. Bowman DMJS, Balch JK, Artaxo P, Bond WJ, Carlson JM, et al. 2009. Fire in the Earth system. Science 324:481-84
77. Stocks BJ, Fosberg MA, Lynham TJ, Mearns L, Wotton BM, et al. 1998. Climate change and forest fire potential in Russian and Canadian boreal forests. Clim. Change 38:1-13 (Pubitemid 28102122)
78. Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, Swetnam TW. 2006. Warming and earlier spring increase western U.S. forest wildfire activity. Science 313:940-43 (Pubitemid 44274884)
79. Williams RJ, Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, Enright NJ, Gill AM, et al. 2009. Interactions between climate change, fire regimes and biodiversity in Australia-a preliminary assessment. Rep. to Dep. Clim. Change Dep. Environ., Water, Herit. Arts, Canberra. 208 pp.
80. Krawchuk MA, Moritz MA, Parisien M-A, Van Dorn J, Hayhoe K. 2009. Global pyrogeography: the current and future distribution of wildfire. PLoS ONE 4:e5102
81. Moritz MA, Parisien M-A, Batllori E, Krawchuk MA, Van Dorn J, et al. 2012. Climate change and disruptions to global fire activity. Ecosphere 3:49
82. Flannigan MD, Amiro BD, Logan KA, Stocks BJ, Wotton BM. 2005. Forest fires and climate change in the 21st century. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 11:847-59
83. Tosca MG, Randerson JT, Zender CS, Flanner MG, Rasch PJ. 2010. Do biomass burning aerosols intensify drought in equatorial Asia during El Niño? Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10:3515-28
84. Heil A, Goldammer JG. 2001. Smoke-haze pollution: a review of the 1997 episode in Southeast Asia. Reg. Environ. Change 2:24-37
85. Goldammer JG, Statheropoulos M, Andreae MO. 2009. Impacts of vegetation fire emissions on the environment, human health, and security: a global perspective. In Wildland Fires and Air Pollution, ed. A Bytnerowicz, M Arbaugh, C Andersen, A Riebau, pp. 1-36. Amsterdam, Neth.: Elsevier
86. Naeher LP, Brauer M, Lipsett M, Zelikoff JT, Simpson CD, et al. 2007. Woodsmoke health effects: a review. Inhal. Toxicol. 19:67-106 (Pubitemid 44863605)
87. Johnston FH, Henderson SB, Chen Y, Randerson JT, Marlier M, et al. 2012. Estimated global mortality attributable to smoke from landscape fires. Environ. Health Perspect. 120:695-701
88. Marlier ME, DeFries RS, Voulgarakis A, Kinney PL, Randerson JT, et al. 2013. El Niño and health risks from landscape fire emissions in southeast Asia. Nat. Clim. Change 3:131-36
89. Chubarova N, Nezval Y, Sviridenkov I, Smirnov A, Slutsker I. 2012. Smoke aerosol and its radiative effects during extreme fire event over central Russia in summer 2010. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 5:557-68
90. Goldammer JG. 2010. Preliminary assessment of the fire situation in western Russia in 2010 by the Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC), 15 August 2010. Int. For. Fire News 40:20-42
91. Portin H, Mielonen T, Leskinen A, Arola A, Parjala E, et al. 2012. Biomass burning aerosols observed in eastern Finland during the Russian wildfires in summer 2010. Part 1: In-situ aerosol characterization. Atmos. Environ. 47:269-78
92. Schwela DH, Goldammer JG, Morawska LH, Simpson O, eds. 1999. Health Guidelines for Vegetation Fire Events: Guideline Document. Published on behalf of UNEP/WHO/WMO. Singapore: Inst. Environ. Epidemiol., Minist. Environ., Double Six Press. 291 pp.
93. Johnston F, Williamson G, Bowman D. 2010. A review of approaches to monitoring smoke from vegetation fires for public health. Air Qual. Clim. Change 44:17-21
94. Friedli HR, Arellano AF, Cinnirella S, Pirrone N. 2009. Initial estimates of mercury emissions to the atmosphere from global biomass burning. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43:3507-13
95. Bond-Lamberty B, Peckham SD, Ahl DE, Gower ST. 2007. Fire as the dominant driver of central Canadian boreal forest carbon balance. Nature 450:89-92 (Pubitemid 350070572)
96. Sigler JM, Lee X, Munger WE. 2003. Emission and long-range transport of gaseous mercury from a large-scale Canadian boreal forest fire. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37:4343-47 (Pubitemid 37259607)
97. Turetsky MR, Harden JW, Friedli HR, Flannigan MD, Payne N, et al. 2006. Wildfires threaten mercury stocks in northern soils. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33:L16403
98. Goldammer JG, Zibtsev S. 2010. Chernobyl resolution on wildfires and human security: challenges and priorities for action to address problems of wildfires burning on terrain contaminated by radioactivity, unexploded ordnance (UXO) and land mines. Int. For. Fire News 40:110-13
99. Dusha-Gudym SI. 2005. Transport of radioactive materials by wildland fires in the Chernobyl Accident Zone. Int. For. Fire News 32:119-25
100. Statheropoulos M, Karma S, Goldammer JG. 2013. Vegetation fire smoke emissions and human health. See Ref. 149, pp. 239-49
101. Gill AM, Stephens SL. 2009. Scientific and social challenges for the management of fire-prone wildland-urban interfaces. Environ. Res. Lett. 4:034014
102. Allen CD, Savage M, Falk DA, Suckling KF, Swetnam TW, et al. 2002. Ecological restoration of southwestern ponderosa pine ecosystems: a broad perspective. Ecol. Appl. 12:1418-33 (Pubitemid 36516747)
103. Syphard AD, Radeloff VC, Hawbaker TJ, Stewart SI. 2009. Conservation threats due to human-caused increases in fire frequency in Mediterranean-climate ecosystems. Conserv. Biol. 23:758-69
104. Veblen TT, Kitzberger T, Donnegan J. 2000. Climatic and human influences on fire regimes in pon-derosa pine forests in the Colorado front range. Ecol. Appl. 10:1178-95 (Pubitemid 32145289)
105. Berry AH, Hesseln H. 2004. The effects of the wildland-urban interface on prescribed burning costs in the Pacific northwestern United States. J. Forest. 102:33-37 (Pubitemid 39364256)
106. Backer DM, Jensen SE, McPherson GR. 2004. Impacts of fire-suppression activities on natural communities. Conserv. Biol. 18:937-46 (Pubitemid 39059150)
107. Blomqvist P, McNamee MS, Andersson P, Lonnermark A. 2012. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) quantified in large-scale fire experiments. Fire Technol. 48:513-28
108. Jensen SE. 2006. Policy tools for wildland fire management: principles, incentives, and conflicts. Nat. Resour. J. 46:959-1003 (Pubitemid 47082269)
109. Bradstock RA, Bedward M, Kenny BJ, Scott J. 1998. Spatially-explicit simulation of the effect of prescribed burning on fire regimes and plant extinctions in shrublands typical of south-eastern Australia. Biol. Conserv. 86:83-95 (Pubitemid 28382644)
110. Artman VL, Sutherland EK, Downhower JF. 2001. Prescribed burning to restore mixed-oak communities in southern Ohio: effects on breeding-bird populations. Conserv. Biol. 15:1423-34 (Pubitemid 32965128)
111. Bradstock RA, Bedward M, Gill AM, Cohn JS. 2005. Which mosaic? A landscape ecological approach for evaluating interactions between fire regimes, habitat and animals. Wildl. Res. 32:409-23 (Pubitemid 41345702)
112. Fensham RJ, Fairfax RJ, Cannell RJ. 1994. The invasion of Lantana camara L. in Forty Mile Scrub National Park, north Queensland. Aust. J. Ecol. 19:297-305 (Pubitemid 2134224)
113. D'Antonio CM, Vitousek PM. 1992. Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 23:63-87 (Pubitemid 24411617)
114. Mack MC, D'Antonio CM. 2003. The effects of exotic grasses on litter decomposition in a Hawaiian woodland: the importance of indirect effects. Ecosystems 6:723-38 (Pubitemid 38039028)
115. Kulpa SM, Leger EA, Espeland EK, Goergen EM. 2012. Postfire seeding and plant community recovery in the Great Basin. Rangel. Ecol. Manag. 65:171-81
116. D'Antonio CM, Hughes RF, Vitousek PM. 2001. Factors influencing dynamics of two invasive C-4 grasses in seasonally dry Hawaiian woodlands. Ecology 82:89-104 (Pubitemid 32106388)
117. Setterfield SA, Rossiter-Rachor NA, Hutley LB, Douglas MM, Williams RJ. 2010. Turning up the heat: the impacts of Andropogon gayanus (gamba grass) invasion on fire behaviour in northern Australian savannas. Divers. Distrib. 16:854-61
118. Sankaran M, Ratnam J, Hanan NP. 2004. Tree-grass coexistence in savannas revisited-insights from an examination of assumptions and mechanisms invoked in existing models. Ecol. Lett. 7:480-90 (Pubitemid 38693390)
119. Werner PA. 2005. Impact of feral water buffalo and fire on growth and survival of mature savanna trees: an experimental field study in Kakadu National Park, northern Australia. Aust. Ecol. 30:625-47 (Pubitemid 41727322)
120. Crowley GM, Garnett ST. 1998. Vegetation change in the grasslands and grassy woodlands of east-central Cape York Peninsula. Pac. Conserv. Biol. 4:132-48 (Pubitemid 29504318)
121. Archibald S, Bond WJ, Stock WD, Fairbanks DHK. 2005. Shaping the landscape:fire-grazer interactions in an African savanna. Ecol. Appl. 15:96-109 (Pubitemid 40263571)
122. Costello L. 2009. Urban-rural migration: housing availability and affordability. Aust. Geogr. 40:219-33
123. Stephens SL, Adams MA, Handmer J, Kearns FR, Leicester B, et al. 2009. Urban-wildland fires: how California and other regions of the US can learn from Australia. Environ. Res. Lett. 4:014010
124. Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, Davies I, Lindenmayer DB, Price OF, Williams RJ. 2012. Wildfires, fuel treatment and risk mitigation in Australian eucalypt forests: insights from landscape-scale simulation. J. Environ. Manag. 105:66-75
125. Mell WE, Manzello SL, Maranghides A, Butry D, Rehm RG. 2010. The wildland-urban interface fire problem-current approaches and research needs. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 19:238-51
126. Wuerthner G. 2006. The Wildfire Reader: A Century of Failed Forest Policy. Washington, DC: Island Press. 370 pp.
127. Adams MA, Attiwill PM. 2011. Burning Issues: Sustainability and Management of Australia's Southern Forests. Melbourne: CSIRO. 160 pp.
128. Dombeck MP, Williams JE, Wood CA. 2004. Wildfire policy and public lands: Integrating scientific understanding with social concerns across landscapes. Conserv. Biol. 18:883-89 (Pubitemid 39059145)
129. Xanthopolous G. 2000. Fire situation in Greece. Int. For. Fire News 23:76-84
130. Baird RA. 2006. Pyro-terrorism: the threat of arson-induced forest fires as a future terrorist weapon of mass destruction. Stud. Confl. Terror. 29:415-28
131. Deshpande N. 2009. Pyro-terrorism: recent cases and the potential for proliferation. Stud. Confl. Terror. 32:36-44
132. Rice RE. 2001. Smokey Bear. In Public Communication Campaigns, ed. RE Rice, CK Atkin, pp. 276-78. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
133. Williams GW. 2007. The Forest Service: Fighting for Public Lands. Westport, CT: Greenwood. 459 pp.
134. Pausas JG. 1999. Response of plant functional types to changes in the fire regime in Mediterranean ecosystems: a simulation approach. J. Veg. Sci. 10:717-22
135. FAO. 2006. Global Forest Resource Assessment 2005-Report on Fires in the Mediterranean Region. Rome: UN FAO. 38 pp.
136. FAO. 2006. Fire Management-Global Assessment 2006: A Thematic Study Prepared in the Framework of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005. Rome: UN FAO. 135 pp.
137. Phelps J, Guerrero MC, Dalabajan DA, Young B, Webb EL. 2010. What makes a 'REDD' country? Glob. Environ. Change 20:322-32
138. Bond WJ, Parr CL. 2010. Beyond the forest edge: ecology, diversity and conservation of the grassy biomes. Biol. Conserv. 143:2395-404
139. Russell-Smith J, Murphy BP, Meyer CP, Cook GD, Maier S, et al. 2009. Improving estimates of savanna burning emissions for greenhouse accounting in northern Australia: limitations, challenges, applications. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 18:1-18
140. Hurteau MD, Brooks ML. 2011. Short-and long-term effects of fire on carbon in US dry temperate forest systems. BioScience 61:139-46
141. Campbell JL, Harmon ME, Mitchell SR. 2012. Can fuel-reduction treatments really increase forest carbon storage in the western US by reducing future fire emissions? Front. Ecol. Environ. 10:83-90
142. Bowman DMJS, Murphy BP, Boer MM, Bradstock RA, Cary GJ, et al. 2013. Forest fire management, climate change, and the risk of catastrophic carbon losses. Front. Ecol. Environ. 11:66-67
143. Parise M, Cannon S. 2012. Wildfire impacts on the processes that generate debris flows in burned watersheds. Nat. Hazards 61:217-27
144. Schweithelm J, Glover D, Jessup T, eds. 1999. Indonesia's Fire and Haze: The Cost of Catastrophe. Singapore: Int. Dev. Res. Cent./Inst. Southeast Asian Stud. 149 pp.
145. Tacconi L. 2003. Fires in Indonesia: causes, costs and policy implications. Occas. Pap. No. 38, Cent. Int. For. Res., Bogor, Indones. http://www.cifor.org/fire/pdf/pdf23.pdf
146. Cochrane MA. 2003. Fire science for rainforests. Nature 421:913-19 (Pubitemid 36288016)
147. Goldammer JG. 2013. International protocols and agreements on cooperation in wildland fire management and wildfire disaster response: needs, current status, and the way ahead. See Ref. 149, pp. 313-41
148. Bowman DD. 2012. Conservation: bring elephants to Australia? Nature 482:30
149. Goldammer JG. 2013. Vegetation Fires and Global Change: Challenges for Concerted International Action. A White Paper Directed to the United Nations and International Organizations. Remagen-Oberwinter, Ger.: Kessel