Bronchoscopic Lung Biopsy

Flexible Bronchoscopy

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 117-131

  Patel, Rajesh R ^a   Utz, James P ^a  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

BLB contraindication, inability in cooperating with procedure; BLB, in select group of diffuse lung diseases; BLB, or transbronchoscopic or transbronchial lung biopsy; Coagulation disorders, relative contraindication to BLB; Decline in need for BLB, newer, imaging procedures; Fluoroscopic guidance, preventing pneumothorax, secondary to BLB; HRCT not being definitive, BAL and BLB considered; HRCT of chest, and decrease of BLBs of diffuse lung disease; Lung transplant recipients and BLB, more frequent; Prebronchoscopy checklist

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886067533     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444346428.ch9     Document Type: Chapter

References (146)

1. Andersen HA, Miller WE, Bernatz PE. Lung biopsy: transbron-choscopic, percutaneous, open. Surg Clin North Am 1973; 53: 785-93.
2. Vitums VC. Percutaneous needle biopsy of the lung with a new disposable needle. Chest 1972; 62: 717-19.
3. Zavala DC, Bedell GN. Percutaneous lung biopsy with a cutting needle. An analysis of 40 cases and comparison with other biopsy techniques. Am Rev Respir Dis 1972; 106: 186-93.
4. Mehnert JH, Brown MJ. Percutaneous needle core biopsy of peripheral pulmonary masses. Am J Surg 1978; 136: 151-6.
5. Feist JH. Letter: Cutting needle biopsies. Chest 1976; 69: 244-5.
6. Castellino RA. Percutaneous pulmonary needle diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonitis. Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 1976; 43: 137-40.
7. Andersen HA, Fontana RS, Harrison EG, Jr. Transbronchoscopic lung biopsy in diffuse pulmonary disease. Dis Chest 1965; 48: 187-92.
8. Andersen HA, Fontana RS. Transbronchoscopic lung biopsy for diffuse pulmonary diseases: technique and results in 450 cases. Chest 1972; 62: 125-8.
9. Palojoki A, Sutinen S. Transbronchoscopic lung biopsy as aid in pulmonary diagnostics. Scand J Respir Dis 1972; 53: 120-4.
10. Andersen HA. Transbronchial lung biopsy in diffuse pulmonary disease. Ann Thorac Surg 1977; 24: 1.
11. Andersen HA. Transbronchoscopic lung biopsy for diffuse pulmonary diseases. Results in 939 patients. Chest 1978; 73: 734-6.
12. Levin DC, Wicks AB, Ellis JH, Jr. Transbronchial lung biopsy via the fiberoptic bronchoscope. Am Rev Respir Dis 1974; 110: 4-12.
13. Scheinhorn DJ, Joyner LR, Whitcomb ME. Transbronchial forceps lung biopsy through the fiberoptic bronchoscope in Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Chest 1974; 66: 294-5.
14. Hanson RR, Zavala DC, Rhodes ML, et al. Transbronchial biopsy via flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope; results in 164 patients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976; 114: 67-72.
15. Elliot TL, Lynch DA, Newell JD, Jr., et al. High-resolution computed tomography features of nonspecific interstitial pneumonia and usual interstitial pneumonia. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2005; 29: 339-45.
16. Nishimura K, Izumi T, Kitaichi M, et al. The diagnostic accuracy of high-resolution computed tomography in diffuse infiltrative lung diseases. Chest 1993; 104: 1149-55.
17. Sundaram B, Gross BH, Martinez FJ, et al. Accuracy of highresolution CT in the diagnosis of diffuse lung disease: effect of predominance and distribution of findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 191: 1032-9.
18. Zompatori M, Sverzellati N, Poletti V, et al. High-resolution CT in diagnosis of diffuse infiltrative lung disease. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 2005; 26: 332-47.
19. Halme M, Piilonen A, Taskinen E. Comparison of endobron-chial and transbronchial biopsies with high-resolution CT (HRCIT) in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis. APMIS 2001; 109: 289-94.
20. Peikert T, Rana S, Edell ES. Safety, diagnostic yield, and therapeutic implications of flexible bronchoscopy in patients with febrile neutropenia and pulmonary infiltrates. Mayo Clin Proc 2005; 80: 1414-20.
21. Patel NR, Lee PS, Kim JH, et al. The influence of diagnostic bronchoscopy on clinical outcomes comparing adult autolo-gous and allogeneic bone marrow transplant patients. Chest 2005; 127: 1388-96.
22. Haponik EF, Summer WR, Terry PB, et al. Clinical decision making with transbronchial lung biopsies. The value of nonspecific histologic examination. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 125: 524-9.
23. Broaddus C, Dake MD, Stulbarg MS, et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage and transbronchial biopsy for the diagnosis of pulmonary infections in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1985; 102: 747-52.
24. Rennard SI, Spurzem JR. Bronchoalveolar lavage in the diagnosis of lung cancer. Chest 1992; 102: 331-2.
25. Jain P, Sandur S, Meli Y, et al. Role of flexible bronchoscopy in immunocompromised patients with lung infiltrates. Chest 2004; 125: 712-22.
26. Prakash UB, Barham SS, Carpenter HA, et al. Pulmonary alveolar phospholipoproteinosis: experience with 34 cases and a review. Mayo Clin Proc 1987; 62: 499-518.
27. Linder J, Radio SJ, Robbins RA, et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage in the cytologic diagnosis of carcinoma of the lung. Acta Cytol 1987; 31: 796-801.
28. Prakash U. Pulmonary eosinophilic granuloma In: III LJ, ed. Immunologically Mediated Pulmonary Diseases. Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1991.
29. McDougall JC CD. Bronchscopic Lung Biopsy. New York: Raven Press; 1994.
30. Morris MJ, Peacock PM, Lloyd WC III, Blanton HM. The effect of pulmonary hypertension upon bleeding in sheep undergoing bronchoscopic biopsy. J Bronchol 1996; 3: 11-16.
31. Morris MJ, Peacock PM, Mego DM, et al. The risk of hemorrhage from bronchoscopic lung biopsy due to pulmonary hypertension in interstitial lung disease. J Bronchol 1998; 5: 115-21.
32. Wahidi MM, Garland R, Feller-Kopman D, et al. Effect of clopi-dogrel with and without aspirin on bleeding following transbronchial lung biopsy. Chest 2005; 127: 961-4.
33. Ernst A, Eberhardt R, Wahidi M, et al. Effect of routine clopi-dogrel use on bleeding complications after transbronchial biopsy in humans. Chest 2006; 129: 734-7.
34. Fleisher LA, Beckman JA, Brown KA, et al. ACC/AHA 2007 Guidelines on perioperative cardiovascular evaluation and care for noncardiac surgery: Executive summary: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2002 Guidelines on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery) Developed in Collaboration With the American Society of Echocardiography, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Heart Rhythm Society, Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, and Society for Vascular Surgery. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 50: 1707-32.
35. Fleisher LA, Beckman JA, Brown KA, et al. ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines on perioperative cardiovascular evaluation and care for noncardiac surgery: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2002 Guidelines on Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery). Anesth Analg 2008; 106: 685-712.
36. Prakash UB, Stubbs SE. The bronchoscopy survey. Some reflections. Chest 1991; 100: 1660-7.
37. Prakash U. Optimal Bronchoscopy. New York: Raven Press; 1994.
38. Rodgers RP, Levin J. A critical reappraisal of the bleeding time. Semin Thromb Hemost 1990; 16: 1-20.
39. Lind SE. The bleeding time does not predict surgical bleeding. Blood 1991; 77: 2547-52.
40. Bjortuft O, Brosstad F, Boe J. Bronchoscopy with transbronchial biopsies: measurement of bleeding volume and evaluation of the predictive value of coagulation tests. Eur Respir J 1998; 12: 1025-7.
41. Zavala DC. Pulmonary hemorrhage in fiberoptic transbronchial biopsy. Chest 1976; 70: 584-8.
42. Zavala DC. Transbronchial biopsy in diffuse lung disease. Chest 1978; 73: 727-33.
43. Matsushima Y, Jones RL, King EG, et al. Alterations in pulmonary mechanics and gas exchange during routine fiberoptic bronchoscopy. Chest 1984; 86: 184-8.
44. Peacock AJ, Benson-Mitchell R, Godfrey R. Effect of fibreoptic bronchoscopy on pulmonary function. Thorax 1990; 45: 38-41.
45. Belen J, Neuhaus A, Markowitz D, et al. Modification of the effect of fiberoptic bronchoscopy on pulmonary mechanics. Chest 1981; 79: 516-19.
46. Kvale P. Bronchoscopic lung biopsy. J Bronchol 1994: 321-6.
47. Whitehead B. Bronchoscopic lung biopsy in pediatric patients. J Bronchol Intervent Pulmonol 1999; 6: 48-54.
48. Prakash UBS FL. Hemoptysis and Bronchoscopy-induced Hemorrhage. New York: Raven Press; 1994.
49. Ahmad M, Livingston DR, Golish JA, et al. The safety of outpatient transbronchial biopsy. Chest 1986; 90: 403-5.
50. Frazier WD, Pope TL, Jr., Findley LJ. Pneumothorax following transbronchial biopsy. Low diagnostic yield with routine chest roentgenograms. Chest 1990; 97: 539-40.
51. Milam MG, Evins AE, Sahn SA. Immediate chest roentgenography following fiberoptic bronchoscopy. Chest 1989; 96: 477-9.
52. Wahidi MM, Rocha AT, Hollingsworth JW, et al. Contraindications and safety of transbronchial lung biopsy via flexible bronchos-copy. A survey of pulmonologists and review of the literature. Respiration 2005; 72: 285-95.
53. Papin TA, Lynch JP, 3rd, Weg JG. Transbronchial biopsy in the thrombocytopenic patient. Chest 1985; 88: 549-52.
54. Cordasco EM, Jr., Mehta AC, Ahmad M. Bronchoscopically induced bleeding. A summary of nine years' Cleveland clinic experience and review of the literature. Chest 1991; 100: 1141-7.
55. Cunningham JH, Zavala DC, Corry RJ, et al. Trephine air drill, bronchial brush, and fiberoptic transbronchial lung biopsies in immunosuppressed patients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977; 115: 213-20.
56. Schiffer CA, Anderson KC, Bennett CL, et al. Platelet transfusion for patients with cancer: clinical practice guidelines of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19: 1519-38.
57. Mannucci PM, Remuzzi G, Pusineri F, et al. Deamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin shortens the bleeding time in uremia. N Engl J Med 1983; 308: 8-12.
58. Mannucci PM, Vicente V, Vianello L, et al. Controlled trial of desmopressin in liver cirrhosis and other conditions associated with a prolonged bleeding time. Blood 1986; 67: 1148-53.
59. de Fenoyl O CF, Lebeau B, Rochemaure J. Transbronchial biopsy without fluoroscopy: a five year experience in outpatients. Thorax 1989; 44: 956-9.
60. Puar HS, Young RC, Jr., Armstrong EM. Bronchial and transbronchial lung biopsy without fluoroscopy in sarcoidosis. Chest 1985; 87: 303-6.
61. Anders GT, Johnson JE, Bush BA, et al. Transbronchial biopsy without fluoroscopy. A seven-year perspective. Chest 1988; 94: 557-60.
62. Prakash UB, Offord KP, Stubbs SE. Bronchoscopy in North America: the ACCP survey. Chest 1991; 100: 1668-75.
63. Colt HG, Prakash UB, Offord KP. Bronchoscopy in North America: Survey by the American Association for Bronchology, 1999. J Bronchol Intervent Pulmonol 2000; 7: 8-25.
64. Prakash UB, Colt HG. The AAB bronchoscopy survey: Does it reveal anything new? J Bronchol Intervent Pulmonol 2000; 7: 1-3.
65. Prakash UBS, Cotese DA, Stubbs SE. Technical Solutions to Common Problems in Bronchoscopy. New York: Ravens Press; 1994.
66. Simpson FG, Arnold AG, Purvis A, et al. Postal survey of bronchoscopic practice by physicians in the United Kingdom. Thorax 1986; 41: 311-17.
67. Descombes E, Gardiol D, Leuenberger P. Transbronchial lung biopsy: an analysis of 530 cases with reference to the number of samples. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 1997; 52: 324-9.
68. Asahina H, Yamazaki K, Onodera Y, et al. Transbronchial biopsy using endobronchial ultrasonography with a guide sheath and virtual bronchoscopic navigation. Chest 2005; 128: 1761-5.
69. Shinagawa N, Yamazaki K, Onodera Y, et al. CT-guided transbronchial biopsy using an ultrathin bronchoscope with virtual bronchoscopic navigation. Chest 2004; 125: 1138-43.
70. Fraire AE, Cooper SP, Greenberg SD, et al. Transbronchial lung biopsy. Histopathologic and morphometric assessment of diagnostic utility. Chest 1992; 102: 748-52.
71. Shure D. Transbronchial biopsy and needle aspiration. Chest 1989; 95: 1130-8.
72. Smith LS, Seaquist M, Schillaci RF. Comparison of forceps used for transbronchial lung biopsy. Bigger may NOT be better. Chest 1985; 87: 574-6.
73. Loube DI, Johnson JE, Wiener D, et al. The effect of forceps size on the adequacy of specimens obtained by transbronchial biopsy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 1411-13.
74. Anders GT, Linville KC, Johnson JE, et al. Evaluation of the float sign for determining adequacy of specimens obtained with transbronchial biopsy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144: 1406-7.
75. Curley FJ, Johal JS, Burke ME, et al. Transbronchial lung biopsy: can specimen quality be predicted at the time of biopsy? Chest 1998; 113: 1037-41.
76. Kvale PA. Flexible Bronchoscopy with Brush and Forceps Biopsy. New York: Raven Press; 1989.
77. Statement on sarcoidosis. Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS), the European Respiratory Society (ERS) and the World Association of Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders (WASOG) adopted by the ATS Board of Directors and by the ERS Executive Committee, February 1999. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 736-55.
78. Gilman MJ, Wang KP. Transbronchial lung biopsy in sarcoidosis. An approach to determine the optimal number of biopsies. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 122: 721-4.
79. Whitcomb ME, Hawley PC, Domby WR, et al. The role of fiberoptic bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis. Clinical conference in pulmonary disease from Ohio State University, Columbus. Chest 1978; 74: 205-8.
80. Koonitz CH, Joyner LR, Nelson RA. Transbronchial lung biopsy via the fiberoptic bronchoscope in sarcoidosis. Ann Intern Med 1976; 85: 64-6.
81. Koerner SK, Sakowitz AJ, Appelman RI, et al. Transbronchinal lung biopsy for the diagnosis of sarcoidosis. N Engl J Med 1975; 293: 268-70.
82. Poe RH, Israel RH, Utell MJ, et al. Probability of a positive transbronchial lung biopsy result in sarcoidosis. Arch Intern Med 1979; 139: 761-3.
83. Roethe RA, Fuller PB, Byrd RB, et al. Transbronchoscopic lung biopsy in sarcoidosis. Optimal number and sites for diagnosis. Chest 1980; 77: 400-2.
84. MacJannette R, Fiddes J, Kerr K, et al. Is bronchoscopic lung biopsy helpful in the management of patients with diffuse lung disease? Eur Respir J 2007; 29: 1064.
85. Armstrong JR, Radke JR, Kvale PA, et al. Endoscopic findings in sarcoidosis. Characteristics and correlations with radiographic staging and bronchial mucosal biopsy yield. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1981; 90: 339-43.
86. Shorr AF, Torrington KG, Hnatiuk OW. Endobronchial biopsy for sarcoidosis: a prospective study. Chest 2001; 120: 109-14.
87. Bilaceroglu S, Perim K, Gunel O, et al. Combining transbronchial aspiration with endobronchial and transbronchial biopsy in sarcoidosis. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 1999; 54: 217-23.
88. Fechner RE, Greenberg SD, Wilson RK, et al. Evaluation of transbronchial biopsy of the lung. Am J Clin Pathol 1977; 68: 17-20.
89. Wall CP, Gaensler EA, Carrington CB, et al. Comparison of transbronchial and open biopsies in chronic infiltrative lung diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981; 123: 280-5.
90. Nishio JN, Lynch JP, 3rd. Fiberoptic bronchoscopy in the immunocompromised host: the significance of a "nonspecific" transbronchial biopsy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 121: 307-12.
91. Ensminger SA, Prakash UB. Is bronchoscopic lung biopsy helpful in the management of patients with diffuse lung disease? Eur Respir J 2006; 28: 1081-4.
92. American Thoracic Society. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: diagnosis and treatment. International consensus statement. American Thoracic Society (ATS), and the European Respiratory Society (ERS). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161: 646-64.
93. American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society International Multidisciplinary Consensus Classification of the Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonias. This joint statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS), and the European Respiratory Society (ERS) was adopted by the ATS board of directors, June 2001 and by the ERS Executive Committee, June 2001. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165: 277-304.
94. Gaensler. Open and Closed Lung Biopsy. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1980.
95. Wilson RK, Fechner RE, Greenberg SD, et al. Clinical implications of a "nonspecific" transbronchial biopsy. Am J Med 1978; 65: 252-6.
96. Newman SL, Michel RP, Wang NS. Lingular lung biopsy: is it representative? Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132: 1084-6.
97. Matthay RA, Farmer WC, Odero D. Diagnostic fibreoptic bronchoscopy in the immunocompromised host with pulmonary infiltrates. Thorax 1977; 32: 539-45.
98. Hedemark LL, Kronenberg RS, Rasp FL, et al. The value of bronchoscopy in establishing the etiology of pneumonia in renal transplant recipients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126: 981-5.
99. Mones JM, Saldana MJ, Oldham SA. Diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Roentgenographic-pathologic correlates based on fiberoptic bronchoscopy specimens from patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Chest 1986; 89: 522-6.
100. Stover DE, White DA, Romano PA, et al. Diagnosis of pulmonary disease in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Role of bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 130: 659-62.
101. Ikedo Y. The significance of bronchoscopy for the diagnosis of Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) pulmonary disease. Kurume Med J 2001; 48: 15-19.
102. Chopra SK, Mohsenifar Z. Fiberoptic bronchoscopy in diagnosis of opportunistic lung infections: assessment of Sputa, Washings, Brushings and biopsy specimens. West J Med 1979; 131: 4-7.
103. Kvale P. How much bronchoscopic sampling is enough (for HIV infected patients)? J Bronchol 1996; 3: 83-4.
104. Ribes JA, Limper AH, Espy MJ, et al. PCR detection of Pneumocystis carinii in bronchoalveolar lavage specimens: analysis of sensitivity and specificity. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 830-5.
105. Cortese JM, McDougall JC. Bronchoscopy in Peripheral and Central Lung Lesions. New York: Raven Press; 1994.
106. Oki M, Saka H, Kitagawa C, et al. Novel thin bronchoscope with a 1.7-mm working channel for peripheral pulmonary lesions. Eur Respir J 2008; 32: 465-71.
107. Eberhardt R, Anantham D, Ernst A, et al. Multimodality bronchoscopic diagnosis of peripheral lung lesions: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 176: 36-41.
108. Papin TA, Grum CM, Weg JG. Transbronchial biopsy during mechanical ventilation. Chest 1986; 89: 168-70.
109. Pincus PS, Kallenbach JM, Hurwitz MD, et al. Transbronchial biopsy during mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 1987; 15: 1136-9.
110. O'Brien JD, Ettinger NA, Shevlin D, et al. Safety and yield of transbronchial biopsy in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 1997; 25: 440-6.
111. Stubbs SE. Bronchoscopy. New York: Raven Press; 1994.
112. Kukafka DS, O'Brien GM, Furukawa S, et al. Surveillance bronchoscopy in lung transplant recipients. Chest 1997; 111: 377-81.
113. Swanson SJ, Mentzer SJ, Reilly JJ, et al. Surveillance transbronchial lung biopsies: implication for survival after lung transplantation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000; 119: 27-37.
114. McWilliams TJ, Williams TJ, Whitford HM, et al. Surveillance bronchoscopy in lung transplant recipients: risk versus benefit. J Heart Lung Transplant 2008; 27: 1203-9.
115. Trulock EP, Ettinger NA, Brunt EM, et al. The role of transbronchial lung biopsy in the treatment of lung transplant recipients. An analysis of 200 consecutive procedures. Chest 1992; 102: 1049-54.
116. Aboyoun CL, Tamm M, Chhajed PN, et al. Diagnostic value of follow-up transbronchial lung biopsy after lung rejection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164: 460-3.
117. Hopkins PM, Aboyoun CL, Chhajed PN, et al. Prospective analysis of 1,235 transbronchial lung biopsies in lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transpl 2002; 21: 1062-7.
118. Valentine VG, Taylor DE, Dhillon GS, et al. Success of lung transplantation without surveillance bronchoscopy. J Heart Lung Transpl 2002; 21: 319-26.
119. Glanville AR. The role of bronchoscopic surveillance monitoring in the care of lung transplant recipients. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 27: 480-91.
120. Benden C, Harpur-Sinclair O, Ranasinghe AS, et al. Surveillance bronchoscopy in children during the first year after lung transplantation: Is it worth it? Thorax 2007; 62: 57-61.
121. Greene CL, Reemtsen B, Polimenakos A, et al. Role of clinically indicated transbronchial lung biopsies in the management of pediatric post-lung transplant patients. Ann Thorac Surg 2008; 86: 198-203.
122. Chhajed PN, Aboyoun C, Malouf MA, et al. Risk factors and management of bleeding associated with transbronchial lung biopsy in lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transpl 2003; 22: 195-7.
123. Levy M, Glick B, Springer C, et al. Bronchoscopy and bronchography in children. Experience with 110 investigations. Am J Dis Child 1983; 137: 14-16.
124. Whitehead B, Scott JP, Helms P, et al. Technique and use of transbronchial biopsy in children and adolescents. Peditric Pulmonol 1992; 12: 240-6.
125. Muntz HR, Wallace M, Lusk RP. Pediatric transbronchial lung biopsy. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1992; 101: 135-7.
126. Scott JP, Higenbottam TW, Smyth RL, et al. Transbronchial biopsies in children after heart-lung transplantation. Pediatrics 1990; 86: 698-702.
127. Fitzpatrick SB, Stokes DC, Marsh B, et al. Transbronchial lung biopsy in pediatric and adolescent patients. Am J Dis Child 1985; 139: 46-9.
128. Smyth AR, Bowhay AR, Heaf LJ, et al. The laryngeal mask airway in fibreoptic bronchoscopy. Arch Dis Child 1996; 75: 344-5.
129. Nussbaum E, Zagnoev M. Pediatric fiberoptic bronchoscopy with a laryngeal mask airway. Chest 2001; 120: 614-16.
130. Kvale PA, Bode FR, Kini S. Diagnostic accuracy in lung cancer; comparison of techniques used in association with flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy. Chest 1976; 69: 752-7.
131. Feldman NT, Penningtonp JE, Ehrie MG. Transbronchial lung biopsy in the compromised host. JAMA 1977; 238: 1377-9.
132. Gould FK, Elliott TS, Foweraker J, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of endocarditis: report of the Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57: 1035-42.
133. Witte MC, Opal SM, Gilbert JG, et al. Incidence of fever and bacteremia following transbronchial needle aspiration. Chest 1986; 89: 85-7.
134. Wilson W, Taubert KA, Gewitz M, et al. Prevention of infective endocarditis: guidelines from the American Heart Association: a guideline from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation 2007; 116: 1736-54.
135. Watts WJ, Green RA. Bacteremia following transbronchial fine needle aspiration. Chest 1984; 85: 295.
136. Kane RC, Cohen MH, Fossieck BE, Jr., et al. Absence of bacteremia after fiberoptic bronchoscopy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1975; 111: 102-4.
137. Pereira W, Kovnat DM, Khan MA, et al. Fever and pneumonia after flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1975; 112: 59-64.
138. Schnabel A, Holl-Ulrich K, Dalhoff K, et al. Efficacy of transbronchial biopsy in pulmonary vaculitides. Eur Respir J 1997; 10: 2738-43.
139. Flick MR, Wasson K, Dunn LJ, et al. Fatal pulmonary hemorrhage after transbronchial lung biopsy through the fiberoptic bronchoscope. Am Rev Respir Dis 1975; 111: 853-6.
140. Herf SM, Suratt PM, Arora NS. Deaths and complications associated with transbronchial lung biopsy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1977; 115: 708-11.
141. Varon J, Fromme RE. Fiberoptic bronchoscopy: complications among physicians-in-training. Internet J Emerg Intens Care Med 1998; 2 : N1.
142. Joyner LR, Scheinhorn DJ. Transbronchial forceps lung biopsy through the fiberoptic bronchoscope. tdiagnosis of diffuse pulmonary disease. Chest 1975; 67: 532-5.
143. Hernandez Blasco L, Sanchez Hernandez IM, Villena Garrido V, et al. Safety of the transbronchial biopsy in outpatients. Chest 1991; 99: 562-5.
144. Zavala DC. Diagnostic fiberoptic bronchoscopy: Techniques and results of biopsy in 600 patients. Chest 1975; 68: 12-19.
145. Shetty PG, Fatterpekar GM, Manohar S, et al. Fatal cerebral air embolism as a complication of transbronchoscopic lung biopsy: a case report. Australas Radiol 2001; 45: 215-17.
146. Thomeer MJ, Costabe U, Rizzato G, et al. Comparison of registries of interstitial lung diseases in three European countries. Eur Respir J 2001; 32 (Suppl): 114s-8s.