Effects of Postnatal Depression on Mother-Infant Interactions and Child Development

The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Infant Development: Second Edition

Volumn 2, Issue , 2010, Pages 192-220

  Murray, Lynne ^a   Halligan, Sarah ^a   Cooper, Peter ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor: SSRI; Behaviour Screening Questionnaire BSQ; Child Behavior Checklist CBCL; Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT); Effects of postnatal depression in the developing world; Effects of Postnatal Depression on Mother Child Relationships; Effects of Postnatal Depression on Mother Infant Interactions and Child Development; Mechanisms mediating cognitive effects of postnatal depression; Mechanisms mediating social emotional outcomes; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)

Indexed keywords

EID: 84885966827     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444327588.ch8     Document Type: Chapter

References (165)

1. Aaron Jones, N., Field, T., Fox, N. A., Lundy, B., & Davalos, M. ( 1997 ). EEG activation in 1-month-old infants of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 491-505.
2. Achenbach, T. M., ( 1991 ). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4-18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
3. Alpern, L., & Lyons-Ruth, K. ( 1993 ). Preschool children at social risk: Chronicity and timing of maternal depressive symptoms and child behavior problems at school and at home. Development and Psychopathology, 5 ( 3 ), 371-387.
4. Appleby, L., Warner, R., Whitton, A., & Faragher, B. ( 1997 ). A controlled study of fluoxetine and cognitive-behavioural counselling in the treatment of postnatal depression. British Medical Journal, 314, 932-936.
5. Atkinson, L., Paglia, A., Coolbear, J., Niccols, A., Parker K. C. H., & Guger, S. ( 2000 ). Attachment security: A meta-analysis of maternal mental health correlates. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 1019-1040.
6. Austin, M. P., & Lumley, J. ( 2003 ). Antenatal screening for postnatal depression: A systematic review. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 107, 10-17.
7. Bartels, M., Van den Berg, M., Sluyter, F., Boomsma, D. I. C., & de Geus, E. J. ( 2003 ). Heritability of cortisol levels: Review and simultaneous analysis of twin studies. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 121-137.
8. Berle, J. O., Steen, V. M., Aamo, T. O., Breilid, H., Zahlsen, K., & Spigset, O. ( 2004 ). Breastfeeding during maternal antidepressant treatment with serotonin reuptake inhibitors: Infant exposure, clinical symptoms, and cytochrome P450 genotypes. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 1288-1234.
9. Bettes, B. A. ( 1988 ). Maternal depression and motherese: Temporal and intonational features. Child Development, 59, 1089-1096.
10. Black, M. M., Baqui, A. H., Zaman, K., McNary, S. W., Le, K., Arifeen, S. E., Hamadani, J. D., Parveen, M., Yunus, M., & Black, M. E. ( 2007 ). Depressive symptoms among rural Bangladeshi mothers: Implications for infant development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48 ( 8 ), 764-772.
11. Boyce, P. M. ( 2003 ). Risk factors for postnatal depression: A review and risk factors in Australian populations. Archives of Women ' s Mental Health, 6 ( Suppl. 2 ), s43-s50.
12. Brazelton, T. B., Kozlowski, B., & Main, M. ( 1974 ). The origins of reciprocity. In M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum (Eds.), The effect of the infant on its caregiver. New York: Elsevier.
13. Brennan, P. A., Hammen, C., Andersen, M. J., Bor, W., Najman, J. M., & Williams, G. M. ( 2000 ). Chronicity, severity, and timing of maternal depressive symptoms: Relationships with child outcomes at age 5. Developmental Psychology, 36, 759-766.
14. Breznitz, Z., & Sherman, T. ( 1987 ). Speech patterning of natural discourse of well and depressed mothers and their young children. Child Development, 58 ( 2 ), 395-400.
15. Brown, G., & Harris, T. (Eds.) ( 1978 ). The social origins of depression. New York: Free Press.
16. Bugental, D. B., Martorell, G. A., & Barraza, V. ( 2003 ). The hormonal costs of subtle forms of infant maltreatment. Hormones and Behavior, 43, 237-244.
17. Campbell, S. B., Brownell, C. A., Hungerford, A., Speiker, S. J., Mohan, R., & Blessing J. S. ( 2004 ). The course of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal sensitivity as predictors of attachment security at 36 months. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 231-252.
18. Campbell, S. B., Cohn, J. E., & Meyers, T. ( 1995 ). Depression in first time mothers: Mother-infant interaction and depression chronicity. Developmental Psychology, 60, 349-357.
19. Caplan, H. L., Cogill, S. R., Alexandra, H., Robson, K. M., Katz, R., & Kumar, R. ( 1989 ). Maternal depression and the emotional development of the child. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 818-822.
20. Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. ( 1998 ). Maternal depressive disorder and contextual risk: Contributions to the development of attachment insecurity and behavior problems in toddlerhood. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 283-300.
21. Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. ( 2000 ). The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy for fostering cognitive development in offspring of depressed mothers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 135-148.
22. Clark, R., Tluczek, A., & Wenzel, A. ( 2003 ). Psychotherapy for postpartum depression: A preliminary report. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 441-454.
23. Cogill, S. R., Caplan, H. L., Alexandra, H., Robson, K. M., & Kumar, R. ( 1986 ). Impact of maternal postnatal depression on cognitive development of young children. British Medical Journal, 292 ( 6529 ), 1165-1167.
24. Cohn, J. F., Campbell, S. B., Matias, R., & Hopkins, J. ( 1990 ). Face-to-face interactions of postpartum depressed and nondepressed mother-infant pairs at 2 months. Developmental Psychology, 26 ( 1 ), 15-23.
25. Cohn, J. F., Matias, R., Tronick, E. Z., Connell, D., & Lyons-Ruth, K. ( 1986 ). Face-to-face interactions of depressed mothers and their infants. In E. Z. Tronick & T. Field (Eds.), Maternal depression and infant disturbance (pp. 31-46 ). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
26. Cooper, P., Landman, M., Tomlinson, M., Molteno, C., Swartz, L., & Murray, L. ( 2002 ). The impact of a mother-infant intervention in an indigent peri-urban South African context: Pilot study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 76-81.
27. Cooper, P. J., Murray, L., Hooper, R., & West, A. ( 1996 ). The development and validation of a predictive index for postpartum depression. Psychological Medicine, 26, 627-634.
28. Cooper, P. J., Murray, L., Wilson, A., & Romaniuk, H. ( 2003 ). Controlled trial of the short-and long-term effect of psychological treatment of post-partum depression. I. Impact on maternal mood. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 412-419.
29. Cooper, P. J., Tomlinson, M., Swartz, L., Landman, M., Molteno, C., Stein, A. L., et al. ( 2009 ) Improving quality of mother-infant relationship and infant attachment in socioeconomically deprived community in South Africa: Randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 338, b974.
30. Cooper, P. J., Tomlinson, M., Swartz, L., Woolgar, M., Murray, L., & Molteno, C. ( 1999 ). Postpartum depression and the mother-infant relationship in a South African peri-urban settlement. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 554-558.
31. Coplan, J. D., Andrews, M. W., Rosenblum, L. A., Owens, M. J., Friedman, S., Gorman, J. M., et al. ( 1996 ). Persistent elevations of cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of corticotropin-releasing factor in adult nonhuman primates exposed to early-life stressors: Implications for the pathophysiology of mood and anxiety disorders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93, 1619-1623.
32. Coplan, J. D., Smith, E. L., Altemus, M., Mathew, S. J., Perera, T., Kral, J. G., et al. ( 2006 ). Maternal-infant response to variable foraging demand in nonhuman primates: Effects of timing of stressor on cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing factor and circulating glucocorticoid concentrations. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071, 525-533.
33. Coplan, J. D., Smith, E. L. P., Altemus, M., Scharf, B. A., Owens, M., Nemeroff, C. B., et al. ( 2001 ). Variable foraging demand rearing: Sustained elevations in cisternal cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing factor concentrations in adult primates. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 200-204.
34. Cornish, A. M., McMahon, C. A., Ungerer, J. A., Barnett, B., Kowalenko, N., & Tennant, C. ( 2005 ). Postnatal depression and infant cognitive and motor development in the second postnatal year: The impact of depression chronicity and infant gender. Infant Behavior and Development, 4, 407-417.
35. Cox, A. D., Puckering, A., Pound, A., & Mills, M. ( 1987 ). The impact of maternal depression in young children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28 ( 6 ), 917-928.
36. Cuijpers, P., Brannmark, J. G., & van Straten, A. ( 2008 ). Psychological treatment of postpartum depression: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64, 103-118.
37. Davidson, R. J., Ekman, P., Saron, C. D., Senulis, J. A., & Friesen, W. V. ( 1990 ). Approach-withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry: Emotional expression and brain physiology. I. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 330-341.
38. Dawson, G., Ashman, S. B., Panagiotides, H., Hessl, D., Self, J., Yamada, E., & Embry, L. ( 2003 ). Preschool outcomes of children of depressed mothers: Role of maternal behavior, contextual risk, and children ' s brain activity. Child Development, 74 ( 4 ), 1158-1175.
39. Dawson, G., Frey, K., Panagiotides, H., Osterling, J., & Hessl, D. ( 1997a ). Infants of depressed mothers exhibit atypical frontal brain activity: A replication and extension of previous findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 179-186.
40. Dawson, G., Frey, K., Panagiotides, H., Self, J., Hessl, D., & Yamada, E. ( 1997b ). Atypical frontal brain activity in infants of depressed mothers: The role of maternal behavior. Poster presented at the 1997 Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Washington, DC.
41. Dawson, G., Frey, K., Panagiotides, H., Yamada, E., Hessl, D., & Osterling, J. ( 1999 ). Infants of depressed mothers exhibit reduced left frontal brain activity during interactions with mother and a familiar non-depressed adult. Child Development, 70 ( 5 ), 1058-1066.
42. DeGangi, G. A., Breinbauer, C., Doussard-Roosevelt, J., Porges, S., & Greenspan, S. ( 2000 ). Prediction of childhood problems at three years in children experiencing disorders of regulation during infancy. Infant Mental Health Journal, 21 ( 3 ), 156-175.
43. Dennis, C. L., & Creedy, D. ( 2004 ). Psychosocial and psychological interventions for preventing postpartum depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews CD001134.
44. Dennis, C. L., & Hodnett, E. ( 2007 ). Psychosocial and psychological interventions for treating postpartum depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews CD006116.
45. Diego, M. A., Field, T., & Hernandez-Reif, M. ( 2001 ). BIS/BAS scores are correlated with frontal EEG asymmetry in intrusive and withdrawn depressed mothers. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22 ( 6 ), 665-675.
46. Eshel, N., Daelmans, B., Cabral de Mello, M., Martines, J. ( 2006 ). Responsive parenting: Interventions and outcomes. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 84 ( 12 ), 992-998.
47. Essex, M. J., Klein, M. H., Cho, E., & Kalin, N. H. ( 2002 ). Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: Effects on cortisol and behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 776-784.
48. Essex, M. J., Klein, M. H., Cho, E., & Kraemer, H. ( 2003 ). Exposure to maternal depression and marital conflict: Gender differences in children ' s later mental health symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42 ( 6 ), 728-737.
49. Essex, M. J., Klein, M., Miech, R., & Smider, N. A. ( 2001 ). Timing of initial exposure to maternal major depression and children ' s mental health symptoms in kindergarten. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 151-156.
50. Fagen, J. W., Ohr, P. S., Fleckenstein, L. K., & Ribner, D. R. ( 1985 ). The effect of crying on long-term memory in infancy. Child Development, 56 ( 6 ), 1584-1592.
51. Fernald, A. ( 1989 ). Intonation and communicative intent in mothers ' speech to infants: Is the melody the message. Child Development, 60, 1497-1510.
52. Field, T. M. ( 1984 ). Early interactions between infants and their postpartum depressed mothers. Infant Behaviour and Development, 7, 517-522.
53. Field, T. M. ( 1995 ). Infants of depressed mothers. Infant Behaviour and Development, 18, 1-3.
54. Field, T., Diego, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., Vera, Y., Gil, K., Schanberg, S., et al. ( 2004 ). Prenatal predictors of maternal and newborn EEG. Infant Behavior and Development, 27 ( 4 ), 533-536.
55. Field, T., Fox, N., Pickens, J., Nawrocki, T., & Soutullo, D. ( 1995 ). Right front EEG activation in 3-to 6-month-old infants of " depressed " mothers. Developmental Psychology, 31, 358-363.
56. Field, T., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., & Guthertz, M. ( 1990 ). Behavior state matching and synchrony in mother-infant interactions of nondepressed versus " depressed " dyads. Developmental Psychology, 26, 7-14.
57. Field, T., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., Perry, S., Bendell, D., Schanberg, S., et al. ( 1988 ). Infants of depressed mothers show " depressed " behavior even with nondepressed adults. Child Development, 59, 1569-1579.
58. Field, T. M., Sandberg, D., Garcia, R., Vega-Lahr, N., Goldstein, S., & Guy, L. ( 1985 ). Pregnancy problems, postpartum depression, and early mother-infant interactions. Developmental Psychology, 21 ( 6 ), 1152-1156.
59. Forman, D. R., O ' Hara, M. W., Stuart, S., Gorman, L. L., Larsen, K. E., & Coy, K. C. ( 2007 ). Effective treatment for postpartum depression is not sufficient to improve the developing mother-child relationship. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 585-602.
60. Ghodsian, M., Zajicek, E., & Wolkind, S. ( 1984 ). A longitudinal study of maternal depression and child behaviour problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 25 ( 1 ), 91-10.
61. Gjerde, P. F. ( 1995 ). Alternative pathways to chronic depressive symptoms in young adults: Gender differences in developmental trajectories. Child Development, 66 ( 5 ), 1277-1300.
62. Glover, V., Onozawa, K., Hodgkinson, A. ( 2002 ). Benefits of infant massage for mothers with postnatal depression. Seminars in Neonatology, 7, 495-500.
63. Goodman, J. H. ( 2004 ). Paternal postpartum depression, its relationship to maternal postpartum depression, and implications for family health. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 45 ( 1 ), 26-35.
64. Goodyer, I. M., Tamplin, A., Herbert, J., & Altham, P. M. ( 2000 ). Recent life events, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone and the onset of major depression in high-risk adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 499-504.
65. Gore, S., Aseltine, R. H., & Colten, M. E. ( 1993 ). Gender, social-relationship involvement, and depression. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3 ( 2 ), 101-125.
66. Halbreich, U., & Karkun, S. ( 2006 ). Cross-cultural and social diversity of prevalence of postpartum depression and depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 91, 97-111.
67. Halligan, S. L., Herbert, J., Goodyer, I. M., & Murray, L. ( 2004 ). Exposure to postnatal depression predicts elevated cortisol in adolescent offspring. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 376-381.
68. Halligan, S. L., Herbert, J., Goodyer, I., & Murray, L. ( 2007 ). Disturbances in morning cortisol secretion in association with maternal postnatal depression predict subsequent depressive symptomatology in adolescents. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 40-46.
69. Halligan, S. L., Murray, L., Martins, C., & Cooper, P. J. ( 2007 ). Maternal depression and psychiatric outcomes in adolescent offspring: A 13-year longitudinal study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 97, 145-154.
70. Hammen, C., & Brennan, P. A. ( 2003 ). Severity, chronicity, and timing of maternal depression and risk for adolescent offspring diagnoses in a community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 253-258.
71. Harris, T. O., Borsanyi, S., Messari, S., Stanford, K., Brown, G. W., Cleary, S. E., et al. ( 2000 ). Morning cortisol as a risk factor for subsequent major depressive disorder in adult women. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 505-510.
72. Hart, S., Field, T., & Nearing, G. ( 1998 ). Depressed mothers ' neonates improve following the MABI and a Brazelton demonstration. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 23, 351-356.
73. Hay, D. F., & Kumar, R. ( 1995 ). Interpreting the effects of mothers ' postnatal depression on children ' s intelligence: A critique and re-analysis. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 253, 165-181.
74. Hay, D. F., Pawlby, S., Angold, A., Harold, G. T., & Sharp, D. ( 2003 ). Pathways to violence in the children of mothers who were depressed postpartum. Developmental Psychology, 39 ( 6 ), 1083-1094.
75. Hay, D. F., Pawlby, S., Sharp, D., Asten, P., Mills, A., & Kumar, R. ( 2001 ). Intellectual problems shown by 11-year-old children whose mothers had postnatal depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 42, 871-889.
76. Henriques, J. B., & Davidson, R. J. ( 1990 ). Regional brain electrical asymmetries discriminate between previously depressed and healthy control subjects. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 22-31.
77. Hessl, D., Dawson, G., Frey, K., Panagiotides, H., Self, H., Yamada, E., et al. ( 1998 ). A longitudinal study of children of depressed mothers: Psychobiological findings related to stress. In D. M. Hann, L. C. Huffman, K. K. Lederhendler, & M. Bethseda (Eds.), Advancing research on developmental plasticity: Integrating the behavioral sciences and the neurosciences of mental health. Bethseda, MD: National Institutes of Mental Health.
78. Hill, J. ( 2002 ). Biological, psychological and social processes in the conduct disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 43 ( 1 ), 133-164.
79. Hipwell, A. E., Murray, L., Ducournau, P., & Stein, A. ( 2005 ). The effects of maternal depression and parental conflict on children ' s peer play. Child: Care, Health and Development, 31 ( 1 ), 11-23.
80. Hoffbrand, S., Howard, L., & Crawley, H. ( 2001 ). Antidepressant drug treatment for postnatal depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews CD002018.
81. Horowitz, J. A., Bell, M., Trybulski, J., Munro, B. H., Moser, D., Hartz, S. A. et al. ( 2001 ). Promoting responsiveness between mothers with depressive symptoms and their infants. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33, 323-329.
82. Hossain, Z., Field, T., Gonzalez, J., Malphurs, J., & Del Valle, C. ( 1994 ). Infants of " depressed " mothers interact better with their nondepressed fathers. Infant Mental Health, 15 ( 4 ), 348-357.
83. Howard, L. M., Hoffbrand, S., Henshaw, C., Boath, L., & Bradley, E. ( 2005 ). Antidepressant prevention of postnatal depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews CD004363.
84. Isabella, R. A., & Belsky, J. ( 1991 ). Interactional synchrony and the origins of infant-mother attachment: A replication study. Child Development, 62 ( 2 ), 373-384.
85. Jaffe, J., Beebe, B., Feldstein, S., Crown, C. L., & Jasnow, M. D. ( 2001 ). Rhythms of dialogue in infancy. In W. F. Overton (Ed.), Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 66 ( 2 ).
86. Jameson, P. B., Gelfand, D. M., Kulcsar, E., & Teti, D. M. ( 1997 ). Mother-toddler interac tion patterns associated with maternal depression. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 537-550.
87. Jones, N. A., Field, T., Davalos, M., & Pickens, J. ( 1997 ). EEG stability in infants/children of depressed mothers. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 28 ( 2 ) 59-70.
88. Joormann, J., Talbot, L., & Gotlib, I. H. ( 2007 ). Biased processing of emotional information in girls at risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 135-143.
89. Kaffman, A., & Meaney, M. J. ( 2007 ). Neurodevelopmental sequelae of postnatal maternal care in rodents: Clinical and research implications of molecular insights. Journal of Child Psychology, and Psychiatry, 48, 224-244.
90. Kaplan, P. S., Bachorowski, J., Smoski, M. J., & Hudenko, W. J. ( 2002 ). Infants of depressed mothers, although competent learners, fail to learn in response to their own mothers ' infant-directed speech. Psychological Science, 13 ( 3 ), 268-271.
91. Kaplan, P. S., Bachorowski, J., Smoski, M. J., & Zinser, M. ( 2001 ). Role of clinical diagnosis and medication use in effects of maternal depression on infant-directed speech. Infancy, 2 ( 4 ) 537-548.
92. Kaplan, P. S., Bachorowski, J., & Zarlengo-Strouse, P. ( 1999 ). Child-directed speech produced by mothers with symptoms of depression fails to promote associative learning in 4-month-old infants. Child Development, 70 ( 3 ), 560-570.
93. Kendler, K. S. ( 1996 ). Major depression and generalised anxiety disorder. Same genes, (partly) different environments-revisited. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168 ( Suppl. 30 ), 68-75.
94. Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. ( 2000 ). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36 ( 2 ), 220-232.
95. Kochanska, G., Tjebkes, T. L., & Forman, D. R. ( 1998 ). Children ' s emerging regulation of conduct: Restraint, compliance, and internalization from infancy to the second year. Child Development, 69 ( 5 ), 1378-1389.
96. Kurstjens, S., & Wolke, D. ( 2001 ). Effects of maternal depression on cognitive development of children over the first 7 years of life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 42, 623-636.
97. Lee, L., Halpern, C. T., Hertz-Picciotto, I., Martin, S. L., & Suchindran, C. M. ( 2006 ). Child care and social support modify the association between maternal depressive symptoms and early childhood behaviour problems: A US national study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 305-310.
98. Mannie, Z. N., Harmer, C. J., & Cowen, P. J. ( 2007 ). Increased waking salivary cortisol levels in young people at familial risk of depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 617-621.
99. Martins, C., & Gaffan, E. A., ( 2000 ). Effects of early maternal depression on patterns of infant-mother attachment: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41 ( 6 ), 737-746.
100. Maughan, A., Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Rogosch, F. A., ( 2007 ). Early-occurring maternal depression and maternal negativity in predicting young children ' s emotion regulation and socioemotional difficulties. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35 ( 5 ), 685-703.
101. McMahon, C. A., Barnett, B., Kowalenko, N. M., & Tennant, C. C. ( 2006 ). Maternal attachment state of mind moderates the impact of postnatal depression on infant attachment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 660-669.
102. Milgrom, J., Westley, D. T., & Gemmill, A. W. ( 2004 ). The mediating role of maternal responsiveness in some longer term effects of postnatal depression on infant development. Infant Behavior and Development, 4, 443-454.
103. Misri, S., Reebye, P., Corral, M., & Milis, L. ( 2004 ). The use of paroxetine and cognitive-behavioral therapy in postpartum depression and anxiety: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 1236-1241.
104. Monk, C. S., Klein, R. G., Telzer, E. H., Schroth, E. A., Mannuzza, S., Moulton, J. L., et al. ( 2008 ). Amygdala and nucleus accumbens activation to emotional facial expressions in children and adolescents at risk for major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 90-98.
105. Morrell, J., & Murray, L. ( 2003 ). Parenting and the development of conduct disorder and hyperactive symptoms in childhood: A prospective longitudinal study from 2 months to 8 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 44 ( 4 ), 489-508.
106. Murray, L. ( 1992 ). The impact of postnatal depression on infant development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 543-561.
107. Murray, L., Cooper, P. J., Wilson, A., & Romaniuk, H. ( 2003 ). Controlled trial of the short-and long-term effect of psychological treatment of post-partum depression, 2. Impact on the mother-child relationship and child outcome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 420-427.
108. Murray, L., Fiori-Cowley, A., Hooper, R., & Cooper, P. ( 1996 ). The impact of postnatal depression and associated adversity on early mother-infant interactions and later infant outcome. Child Development, 67, 2512-2526.
109. Murray, L., Halligan, S., Adams, G., Patterson, P., & Goodyer, I. M. ( 2006 ). Socioemotional development in adolescents at risk for depression: The role of maternal depression and attachment style. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 489-516.
110. Murray, L., Halligan, S. L., Goodyer, I., & Herbert, J. (2010). Disturbances in early parenting of depressed mothers and cortisol secretion in offspring: A preliminary study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 122, 218-223.
111. Murray, L., Hipwell, A., Hooper, R., Stein, A., & Cooper, P. ( 1996 ). The cognitive development of 5-year-old children of postnatally depressed mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 927-935.
112. Murray, L., Kempton, C., Woolgar, M., & Hooper, R. ( 1993 ). Depressed mothers ' speech to their infants and its relation to infant gender and cognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34 ( 7 ), 1083-1101.
113. Murray, L., & Ramchandani, P. ( 2007 ). Might prevention be better than cure? A perspective on improving infant sleep and maternal mental health: A cluster randomized trial. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 92, 943-944.
114. Murray, L., Sinclair, D., Cooper, P., Ducournau, P., Turner, P., & Stein, A. ( 1999 ). The socioemotional development of 5-year-old children of postnatally depressed mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40, 1259-1271.
115. Murray, L., Stanley, C., Hooper, R., King, F., & Fiori-Cowley, A. ( 1996 ). The role of infant factors in postnatal depression and mother-infant interactions. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 38, 109-119.
116. Murray, L., Woolgar, M., Briers, S., & Hipwell, A. ( 1999 ). Children ' s social representations in dolls ' house play and theory of mind tasks, and their relation to family adversity and child disturbance. Social Development, 8 ( 2 ), 179-200.
117. Murray, L., Woolgar, M., Cooper, P., & Hipwell, A. ( 2001 ). Cognitive vulnerability to depression in 5-year-old children of depressed mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42 ( 7 ), 891-899.
118. NICHD, Early Child Care Research Network ( 1999 ). Chronicity of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity and child functioning at 36 months. Developmental Psychology, 35 ( 5 ), 1297-1310.
119. O ' Connor, T. G., Ben-Shlomo, Y., Heron, J., Golding, J., Adams, D., & Glover, V. ( 2005 ). Prenatal anxiety predicts individual differences in cortisol in pre-adolescent children. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 211-217.
120. O ' Hara, M., & Swain, A. ( 1996 ). Rates and risk of postpartum depression-A meta-analysis. International Review of Psychiatry, 8 ( 1 ), 37-54.
121. Onozawa, K., Glover, V., Adams, D., Modi, N., & Kumar, R. C. ( 2001 ). Infant massage improves mother-infant interaction for mothers with postnatal depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 63, 201-207.
122. Papousek, H., & Papousek, M. ( 1987 ). Intuitive parenting: A dialectic counterpart to the infant ' s integrative competence. In J. D. Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook of infant development ( 2nd ed., pp. 669-720 ). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
123. Patel, V., Rodrigues, M., & DeSouza, N. ( 2002 ). Gender, poverty, and postnatal depression: A study of mothers in Goa, India. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 43-47.
124. Pawlby, S., Hay, D., Sharp, D., Waters, C. S., & O ' Keane, V. ( 2009 ). Antenatal depression predicts depression in adolescent offspring: Prospective longitudinal community based study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 113 ( 3 ), 236-243.
125. Pawlby, S., Sharp, D., Hay, D., & O ' Keane, V. ( 2008 ). Postnatal depression and child outcome at 11 years: The importance of accurate diagnosis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 107 ( 1-3 ), 241-245.
126. Pelaez-Nogueras, M., Field, T., Cigales, M., Gonzalez, L., & Clasky, S. ( 1994 ). Infants of depressed mothers show less " depressed " behavior with their nursery teachers. Infant Mental Health Journal, 15 ( 4 ), 358-367.
127. Petterson, S., & Burke-Albers, A. ( 2001 ). Effects of poverty and maternal depression on early child development. Child Development, 72 ( 6 ), 1794-1813.
128. Philipps, L. H., & O ' Hara, M.W. ( 1991 ). Prospective study of postpartum depression, 4 1/2-year follow-up of women and children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100 ( 2 ), 151-155.
129. Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. ( 2000 ). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 427-441.
130. Rahman, A., Bunn, J., Lovel, H., & Creed, F. ( 2007 ). Maternal depression increases infant risk of diarrhoeal illness: A cohort study. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 92, 24-28.
131. Rahman, A., Iqbal, Z., & Harrington, R. ( 2003 ). Life events, social support and depression in childbirth: Perspectives from a rural community in the developing world. Psychological Medicine, 33, 1161-1167.
132. Rahman, A., Iqbal, Z., Bunn, J., Lovel, H., & Harrington, R. ( 2004 ). Impact of maternal depression on infant nutritional status and illness. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 946-952.
133. Ramchandani, P., O ' Connor, T. G., Evans, J., Heron, J., Murray, L., & Stein, A. ( 2008 ). The effects of pre-and postnatal depression in fathers: A natural experiment comparing the effects of exposure to depression on offspring. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 49 ( 10 ), 1069-1078.
134. Ramchandani, P., Stein, A., Evans, J., O ' Connor, T. G., & ALSPAC Study Team ( 2005 ). Paternal depression in the postnatal period and child development: A prospective population study. Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey, 60 ( 12 ), 789-790.
135. Ramchandani, P. G., Stein, A., O ' Connor, T., Heron, J., Murray, L., & Evans, J. ( 2008 ). Depression in men in the postnatal period and later child psychopathology: A population cohort study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47 ( 4 ), 390-398.
136. Richman, N., & Graham, P. J. ( 1971 ). A Behavioural Screening Questionnaire for use with three-year-old children. Preliminary findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 12 ( 1 ), 5-33.
137. Rosenblum, L. A., Coplan, J. D., Friedman, S., Bassoff, T., Gorman, J. M., & Andrews, M. W. ( 1994 ). Adverse early experiences affect noradrenergic and serotonergic functioning in adult primates. Biological Psychiatry, 35, 221-227.
138. Sameroff, A. J., & Emde, R. (Eds.) ( 1989 ). Relationship disturbances in early childhood. New York: Basic Books.
139. Schaffer, C. E., Davidson, R. J., & Saron, C. ( 1983 ). Frontal and parietal electroencephalogram asymmetry in depressed and nondepressed subjects. Biological Psychiatry, 18 ( 7 ), 753-762.
140. Sharp, D., Hay, D. F., Pawlby, S., Schmucker, G., Allen, H., & Kumar, R. ( 1995 ). The impact of postnatal depression on boys ' intellectual development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 36, 1315-1336.
141. Sinclair, D., & Murray, L. ( 1998 ). The effects of postnatal depression on children ' s adjustment to school: Teacher reports. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 58-63.
142. Slater, A. ( 1995 ). Individual differences in infancy and later IQ. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 36 ( 1 ), 69-112.
143. Southwick, S. M., Vythilingam, M., & Charney, D. S. ( 2005 ). The psychobiology of depression and resilience to stress: Implications for prevention and treatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology and Allied Disciplines, 1, 255-291.
144. St. James-Roberts, I., & Plewis, I. ( 1996 ). Individual differences, daily fluctuations, and developmental changes in amounts of infant waking, fussing, crying, feeding, and sleeping. Child Development, 67, 2527-2540.
145. Stanley, C., Murray, L., & Stein, A. ( 2004 ). The effect of postnatal depression on mother-infant interaction, infant response to the still-face perturbation, and performance on an instrumental learning task. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1-18.
146. Stein, A., Gath, D. H., Butcher, J., Bond, A., Day, A., & Cooper, P. J. ( 1991 ). The relationship between post-natal depression and mother-child interaction. British Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 46-52.
147. Stern, D., Beebe, B., Jaffe, J., & Bennett, S. ( 1977 ). The infant ' s stimulus world during social interaction: A study of caregiver behaviors with particular reference to repetition and timing. In H. R. Schaffer (Ed.), Studies in mother-infant interaction (pp. 177-202 ). New York: Academic Press.
148. Stern, D. N., Spieker, S., & MacKain, K. ( 1982 ). Intonation contours as signals in maternal speech to prelinguistic infants. Developmental Psychology, 18, 727-735.
149. Thompson, L. A., & Trevathan, W. R. ( 2008 ). Cortisol reactivity, maternal sensitivity, and learning in 3-month-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 31, 92-106.
150. Tomarken, A. J., Davidson, R. J., & Henriques, J. B. ( 1990 ). Resting frontal brain asymmetry predicts affective responses to films. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 791-801.
151. Tomlinson, M., Cooper, P. J., & Murray, L. ( 2005 ). The mother-infant relationship and infant attachment in a South African peri-urban settlement. Child Development, 76, 1044-1054.
152. Trevarthen, C. ( 1979 ). Communication and cooperation in early infancy: A description of primary intersubjectivity. In M. Bullowa (Ed.), Before speech: The beginning of interpersonal communication (pp. 321-347 ). New York: Cambridge University Press.
153. Tronick, E. Z. ( 1989 ). Emotions and emotional communication in infants. American Psychologist, 44 ( 2 ), 112-119.
154. Tronick, E. Z., & Gianino, A. F. ( 1986 ). The transmission of maternal disturbance to the infant. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 34, 5-11.
155. Tronick, E. Z., & Weinberg, M. K. ( 1997 ). Depressed mothers and infants: Failure to form dyadic states of consciousness. In L. Murray & P. Cooper (Eds.), Postpartum depression and child development. New York: Guilford.
156. Wachs, T. D., Black, M. M., & Engle, P. ( 2009 ). Maternal depression: A global threat to children ' s health, development, and behavior and to human rights. Child Development Perspectives, 3 ( 1 ), 51-59.
157. Weinberg, M. K., Olson, K. L., Beeghly, M., & Tronick, M. Z. ( 2006 ). Making up is hard to do, especially for mothers with high levels of depressive symptoms and their infant sons. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 47 ( 7 ), 670-683.
158. Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., & Prusoff, B. A. ( 1988 ). Early-onset major depression in parents and their children. Journal of Affective Disorders, 15, 269-277.
159. Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Warner, V., Pilowsky, D., & Verdeli, H. ( 2006 ). Offspring of depressed parents, 20 years later. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1001-1008.
160. Wisner, K. L., Perel, J. M., Peindl, K. S., Hanusa, B. H., Findling, R. L., & Rapport, D. ( 2001 ). Prevention of recurrent postpartum depression: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 82-86.
161. Wisner, K. L., Perel, J. M., Peindl, K. S., Hanusa, B. H., Piontek, C. M., & Findling, R. L. ( 2004 ). Prevention of postpartum depression: A pilot randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1290-1292.
162. Wrate, R. M., Rooney, A. C., Thomas, P. F., & Cox, J. L. ( 1985 ). Postnatal depression and child development: A 3-year follow-up study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 622-627.
163. Wright, C. A., George, T. P., Burke, R., Gelfand, D. M., & Teti, D. M. ( 2000 ). Early maternal depression and children ' s adjustment to school. Child Study Journal, 30 ( 3 ), 153-168.
164. Young, E. A., Vazquez, D. M., Jiang, H., & Pfeffer, C. R. ( 2006 ). Saliva cortisol and response to dexamethasone in children of depressed parents. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 831-836.
165. Zlochower, A., & Cohn, J. F. ( 1996 ). Vocal timing in face-to-face interaction of clinically depressed and non-depressed mothers and their 4 month old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 19, 371-374.