The origins of fossil capital: From water to steam in the british cotton industry

Historical Materialism

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 15-68

  Malm, Andreas ^a  

^a LUND UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

capital accumulation; carbon dioxide; cotton industry; Fossil fuels; labour; space; steam power; time; water power

Indexed keywords

EID: 84885599971     PISSN: 14654466     EISSN: 1569206X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/1569206X-12341279     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. Alderson, M.A. 1834, An Essay on the Nature and Application of Steam, London: Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper
2. Allen, Robert C. 2009, The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
3. Altvater, Elmar 1994, ?Ecological and Economic Modalities of Time and Space?, in Is Capitalism Sustainable: Political Economy and the Politics of Ecology, edited by Martin O?Connor, New York: Guilford Press
4. -2006, ?The Social and Natural Environment of Fossil Capitalism?, in Socialist Register 2007, edited by Leo Panitch and Colin Leys, London: Merlin Press
5. Andrews, Thomas G. 2008, Killing for Coal: America?s Deadliest Labor War, Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press
6. Arago, Francois 1839, Historical Eloge of James Watt, London: John Murray
7. Arrhenius, Svante 1896, ?On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground?, Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 5, 41: 237-76
8. Ashmore, Owen 1969, The Industrial Archaeology of Lancashire, Newton Abbot: David and Charles
9. Ashworth, W. 1951, ?British Industrial Villages in the Nineteenth Century?, The Economic History Review, 3, 3: 378-87
10. Aspin, Chris 2003, The Water Spinners, Helmshore: Helmshore Local History Society
11. Aston, Trevor Henry and C.H.E. Philpin (eds.) 1987, The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-industrial Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
12. Atwood, Rollin S. 1928, ?Localization of the Cotton Industry in Lancashire, England?, Economic Geography, 4, 2: 187-95
13. Babbage, Charles 1835 [1833], On the Economy of Manufactures, London: Charles Knight. Balderston, Theo 2010, ?The Economics of Abundance: Coal and Cotton in Lancashire and the World?, The Economic History Review, 63, 3: 569-90
14. Barca, Stefania 2011, ?Energy, Property, and the Industrial Revolution Narrative?, Ecological Economics, 70, 7: 1309-15
15. Bartrip, Peter 1985, ?Success or Failure The Prosecution of the Early Factory Acts?, The Economic History Review, 38, 3: 423-7
16. Blauwhof, Frederik Berend 2012, ?Overcoming Accumulation: Is a Capitalist Steady-State Economy Possible?, Ecological Economics, online first, doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012-03-012
17. Boden, T.A., G. Marland and R.J. Andres 2011, Global, Regional, and National Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions, Oak Ridge: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US Department of Energy, available at:
18. Boyson, Rhodes 1970, The Ashworth Cotton Enterprise: The Rise and Fall of a Family Firm, 1818-1880, Oxford: Clarendon Press
19. Brenner, Robert 1986, ?The Social Basis of Economic Development?, in Analytical Marxism, edited by John Roemer, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
20. -1987a [1976], ?Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-industrial Europe?, in Aston and Philpin (eds.) 1987
21. -1987b [1985], ?The Agrarian Roots of European Capitalism?, in Aston and Philpin (eds.) 1987
22. -2007, ?Property and Progress: Where Adam Smith Went Wrong?, in Marxist History-Writing for the Twenty-First Century, edited by Chris Wickham, Oxford: Oxford University Press/British Academy
23. Briggs, Asa 1982, The Power of Steam: An Illustrated History of the World?s Steam Age, London: Bison Books
24. Burkett, Paul 1999, Marx and Nature: A Red and Green Perspective, New York: St Martin?s Press
25. -2006, Marxism and Ecological Economics: Toward a Red and Green Political Economy, Historical Materialism Book Series, Leiden: Brill
26. Buxton, Neil K. 1978, The Economic Development of the British Coal Industry: From Industrial Revolution to the Present Day, Newton Abbot: Batsford Academic.
27. Bythell, Duncan 1969, The Handloom Weavers: A Study in the English Cotton Industry during the Industrial Revolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
28. Cameron, Rondo 1985, ?A New View of European Industrialization?, The Economic History Review, 38, 1: 1-23
29. Castree, Noel 2009, ?The Spatio-temporality of Capitalism?, Time and Society, 18, 1: 26-61
30. Catling, Harold 1970, The Spinning Mule, Newton Abbot: David and Charles.
31. Chaloner, W.H. 1954-5, ?Robert Owen, Peter Drinkwater and the Early Factory System in Manchester, 1788-1800?, Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 37: 87-92
32. Chapman, Stanley D. 1969, ?The Peels in the Early English Cotton Industry?, Business History, 11, 2: 235-66
33. -1971, ?The Cost of Power in the Industrial Revolution in Britain: The Case of the Textile Industry?, Midlands History, 1, 2: 1-24
34. -1972, The Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution, Basingstoke Macmillan.
35. -1992 [1967], The Early Factory Masters: The Transition to the Factory System in the Midland Textile Industry, Aldershot: Gregg Revivals
36. Church, Roy 1986, The History of the British Coal Industry. Volume 3: 1830-1913: Victorian Preeminence, Oxford: Clarendon Press
37. Clark, Brett and Richard York 2005, ?Carbon Metabolism: Global Capitalism, Climate Change, and the Biospheric Rift?, Theory and Society, 34, 4: 391-428
38. Clery, Daniel 2010, ?Sending African Sunlight to Europe, Special Delivery?, Science, 329, 5993: 782-3
39. Cohen, John S. 1981, ?Managers and Machinery: An Analysis of the Rise of Factory Production?, Australian Economic Papers, 20, 36: 24-41
40. Cooke, Anthony 2003, Stanley: From Arkwright Village to Commuter Suburb: 1784-2003, Perth: Perth & Kinross Libraries
41. -2010, The Rise and Fall of the Scottish Cotton Industry, 1778-1914: ?The Secret Spring?, Manchester: Manchester University Press
42. Cooke Taylor, William 1843, The Hand Book of Silk, Cotton, and Woollen Manufactures, London
43. Richard Bentley. Crafts, Nicholas 2004, ?Steam as a General Purpose Technology: A Growth Accounting Perspective?, The Economic Journal, 114, 495: 338-51
44. Crutzen, Paul J. 2002, ?Geology of Mankind?, Nature, 415
45. Crutzen, Paul J. and Will Steffen 2003, ?How Long Have We Been in the Anthropocene Era?, Climatic Change, 61, 3: 251-7
46. Dearne, Martin J. and Keith Branigan 1995, ?The Use of Coal in Roman Britain?, The Antiquaries Journal, 75: 71-105
47. Debeir, Claude, Jean-Paul Deleage and Daniel Hemery 1991 [1986], In the Servitude of Power: Energy and Civilisation through the Ages, London: Zed Books
48. Engels, Friedrich 2009 [1845], The Condition of the Working Class in England, edited by David McLellan, Oxford: Oxford University Press
49. Fairbairn, William 1861, ?Speech at the British Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting in Manchester?, Proceedings of the Thirty-First Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Manchester: Guardian Steam-Printing
50. -1864 [1863], Treatise on Mills and Millwork, Part I., On the Principles of Mechanism and on Prime Movers, London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green
51. Farey, John 1827, A Treatise on the Steam Engine, Historical, Practical, and Descriptive, London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green
52. Fitton, Robert S. 1989, The Arkwrights: Spinners of Fortune, Manchester: Manchester University Press
53. Fitton, Robert S. and A.P. Wadsworth 1958, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 1758-1830, Manchester: Manchester University Press
54. Flinn, Michael W. 1984, The History of the British Coal Industry, Volume 2, 1700-1830: The Industrial Revolution, Oxford: Clarendon Press
55. Foster, John Bellamy 2000, Marx?s Ecology: Materialism and Nature, New York: Monthly Review Press
56. -2011, ?Capitalism and Degrowth: An Impossibility Theorem?, Monthly Review, 62, 8: 26-33
57. Foster, John Bellamy, Brett Clark and Richard York 2010, The Ecological Rift: Capitalism?s War on the Earth, New York: Monthly Review Press
58. Foulkes, Edward J. 1964, ?The Cotton Spinning Factories of Flintshire, 1777-1866?, The Journal of the Flintshire Historical Society, 21: 91-7
59. Gatrell, Victor A.C. 1977, ?Labour, Power, and the Size of Firms in Lancashire Cotton in the Second Quarter of the Nineteenth Century?, The Economic History Review, 30, 1: 95-139
60. Glasgow Mechanics? Magazine 1826, ?On the Comparative Costs of Power Obtained by Steam or Water?, 7 January.
61. Gordon, Robert B. 1983, ?Cost and Use of Water Power during Industrialization in New England and Great Britain: A Geological Interpretation?, The Economic History Review, 36, 2: 240-59
62. Gray, Robert 1996, The Factory Question and Industrial England, 1830-1860, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
63. Greenberg, Dolores 1982, ?Reassessing the Power Patterns of the Industrial Revolution: An Anglo-American Comparison?, The American Historical Review, 87, 5: 1237-61
64. Greg archive, Manchester Archives and Local Studies: R. Greg and Co. Ltd. of Quarry Bank Mill, Styal.
65. Harvey, David 1999 [1982], The Limits to Capital, First Edition, London: Verso
66. Hatcher, John 1993, The History of the British Coal Industry, Volume 1: Before 1700, Oxford: Clarendon Press
67. Hills, Richard L. 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, New York: Augustus M. Kelley
68. -1989, Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
69. -2006, ?The Importance of Steam Power during the Nineteenth Century?, Transactions of the Newcomen Society, 76, 2: 175-92
70. Horner, Leonard 1834, The Factories Regulation Act Explained, With Some Remarks on Its Origin, Nature, and Tendency, Glasgow: David Robertson.
71. Howe, Anthony 1984, The Cotton Masters, 1830-1860, Oxford: Clarendon Press
72. Huber, Matthew T. 2009, ?Energizing Historical Materialism: Fossil Fuels, Space and the Capitalist Mode of Production?, Geoforum, 40, 1: 105-15
73. Humphrey, William S. and Joe Stanislaw 1979, ?Economic Growth and Energy Consumption in the UK, 1700-1975?, Energy Policy, 7, 1: 29-42
74. Hyde, Charles K. 1977, Technological Change and the Development of the British Iron Industry, 1700-1870, Princeton: Princeton University Press
75. Ingle, George 1997, Yorkshire Cotton: The Yorkshire Cotton Industry, 1780-1835, Lancaster: Carnegie Publishing Ltd.
76. Ingold, Tom 1995, ?Work, Time and Industry?, Time and Society, 4, 1: 5-28
77. Jacobson, Mark Z. and Mark A. Delucchi 2011a, ?Providing All Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part I: Technologies, Energy Resources, Quantities and Areas of Infrastructure, and Materials?, Energy Policy, 39, 3: 1154-69
78. -2011b, ?Providing All Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part II: Reliability, System and Transmission Costs, and Policies?, Energy Policy, 39, 3: 1170-90
79. Jevons archive, John Rylands Library, Manchester: William Stanley Jevons. Jevons, William Stanley 1866, The Coal Question: An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of our Coal-Mines, London: Macmillan and Co.
80. Joffe, Michael 2011, ?The Root Cause of Economic Growth under Capitalism?, Cambridge Journal of Economics, online first, doi:10.1093/cje/beq054.
81. Jones, Christopher F. 2010, ?A Landscape of Energy Abundance: Anthracite Coal Canals and the Roots of American Fossil Fuel Dependence, 1820-1860?, Environmental History, 15, 3: 449-84
82. Journal of the Statistical Society of London 1838, ?Increase of Steam-Power in Lancashire and Its Immediate Vicinity?, 1, 5: 315-16
83. Kanefsky, John William 1979, The Diffusion of Power Technology in British Industry, 1760-1870, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Exeter.
84. Kennedy, John 1818, Observations on the Rise and Progress of the Cotton Trade in Great Britain, Manchester: The Executors of the Late
85. Russell. Kerr, Richard A. 2010, ?Do We Have the Energy for the Next Transition?, Science, 329, 5993: 780-1
86. Kirby, Raymond George and Albert Edward Musson 1975, The Voice of the People: John Doherty, 1798-1854
87. Trade Unionist, Radical and Factory Reformer, Manchester: Manchester University Press
88. Lee, Clive Howard 1972, A Cotton Enterprise, 1795-1840: A History of the M?Connel & Kennedy Fine Cotton Spinners, Manchester: Manchester University Press
89. Lefebvre, Henri 1991 [1974], The Production of Space, translated by Donald Nicholson-Smith, Oxford: Blackwell.
90. Leggett, L. Mark W. and David A. Ball 2012, ?The Implication for Climate Change and Peak Fossil Fuel of the Continuation of the Current Trend in Wind and Solar Energy Production?, Energy Policy, 41, 610-17
91. Lloyd-Jones, Roger and Myrddin John Lewis 1998, British Industrial Capitalism since the Industrial Revolution, London: Routledge.
92. Lord, John 1965 [1923], Capital and Steam Power, 1750-1800, New York: Frank Cass
93. Malanima, Paolo 2001, ?The Energy Basis for Early Modern Growth, 1650-1820?, in Early Modern Capitalism: Economic and Social Change in Europe, 1400-1800, edited by Maarten Prak, London: Routledge
94. -2006, ?Energy Crisis and Growth 1650-1850: The European Deviation in a Comparative Perspective?, Journal of Global History, 1, 1: 101-21
95. Malm, Andreas 2012a, ?Steam: Nineteenth-Century Mechanization and the Power of Capital?, in Ecology and Power: Struggles over Land and Material Resources in the Past, Present and Future, edited by Alf Hornborg, Brett Clark and Kenneth Hermele, Abingdon: Routledge
96. -2012b, ?China as Chimney of the World: The Fossil Capital Hypothesis?, Organization & Environment, 25, 2: 146-77
97. -2013, ?Fleeing the Flowing Commons: Robert Thom, Water Reservoir Schemes, and the Shift to Steam-Power in Early Nineteenth Century Britain?, Environmental History, forthcoming. Manchester Guardian 1827, ?Great Hydraulic Improvements in Scotland?, 3 February
98. -1830, ?Serious Riot?, 17 April
99. -1831, ?Proposed Reservoir Near Bolton for Supplying the Mills on the Irwell?, 30 June
100. -1835, ?Emigration of Labourers-Poor Law Commissioners?, 21 March.
101. -Mandel, Ernest 1990 [1976], ?Introduction?, in Marx 1990.
102. Marshall, J.D. 1957, ?Early Applications of Steam Power: The Cotton Mills of the Upper Leen?, Transactions of the Thoroton Society, 60: 34-43
103. Marvel, Howard P. 1977, ?Factory Regulation: A Reinterpretation of Early English Experience?, Journal of Law and Economics, 20, 2: 379-402
104. Marx, Karl 1990 [1867], Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Volume I, translated by Ben Fowkes, Harmondsworth: Penguin
105. -1991a [1894], Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Volume III, translated by David Fernbach, Harmondsworth: Penguin
106. -1991b, ?Marx?s Economic Manuscripts of 1861-63?, in Marx and Engels Collected Works, Volume 33, London: Lawrence and Wishart
107. -1992 [1885], Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Volume II, translated by David Fernbach, Harmondsworth: Penguin
108. -1993 [1939/41], Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
109. Mayumi, Kozo 1991, ?Temporary Emancipation from Land: From the Industrial Revolution to the Present Time?, Ecological Economics, 4, 1: 35-56
110. McCulloch, J.R. [unsigned] 1833, ?Babbage on Machinery and Manufactures?, Edinburgh Review, Volume LVI, January: 313-32
111. -[unsigned] 1835, ?Philosophy of Manufactures?, Edinburgh Review, Volume LXI, July: 453-72
112. -1837, A Statistical Account of the British Empire: Exhibiting Its Extent, Physical Capacities, Population, Industry, Civil and Religious Institutions, London: Charles Knight. Mechanics? Magazine 1832, ?The Shaws? Waterworks, Greenock?, 11 August: 306-13
113. Meiksins Wood, Ellen 1995, Democracy against Capitalism: Renewing Historical Materialism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
114. -2002, The Origin of Capitalism: A Longer View, Second Edition, London: Verso
115. Mitchell, Brian R. 1984, Economic Development of the British Coal Industry, 1800-1914, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
116. Mitchell, Timothy 2002, Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity, Berkeley: University of California Press
117. -2011, Carbon Democracy: Political Power in the Age of Oil, London Verso.
118. Musson, Albert Edward 1976, ?Industrial Motive Power in the United Kingdom, 1800-70?, The Economic History Review, 29, 3: 415-39
119. Musson, Albert Edward and E. Robinson 1959, ?The Early Growth of Steam Power?, The Economic History Review, 11, 3: 418-39
120. Nardinelli, Clark 1985, ?The Successful Prosecution of the Factory Acts: A Suggested Explanation?, The Economic History Review, 38, 3: 428-30
121. Nef, John U. 1966 [1932], The Rise of the British Coal Industry, Volumes I-II, Abingdon: Frank Cass
122. Nuvolari, Alessandro 2004, The Making of Steam Power Technology: A Study of Technical Change during the British Industrial Revolution, Eindhoven: Eindhoven University Press
123. Owens, Jessica 2011, Quarry Bank Mill and Styal Estate, National Trust, GCSE Resources, available at
124. Parliamentary Papers 1833a, Volume XX, Reports from Commissioners: Factories, First Report
125. -1833b, Volume XXI, Factories Inquiry Commission, Second Report
126. -1834, Volume XX, Reports from Commissioners: Factories Inquiry, Part II
127. -1835, Volume XXXV, First Annual Report of the Poor Law Commissioners
128. -1840, Volume X, Reports from Committees: Factories
129. -1845, Volume XXV, Factory Inspectors: ?Report for the Quarter Ending 30th September, 1844; and from 1st October, 1844, to 30th April, 1845?
130. -1849, Volume XXII, Factory Inspectors: ?Report for the Half-Year Ending 31st October 1848?.
131. Peacock, A.E. 1984, ?The Successful Prosecution of the Factory Acts, 1833-55?, The Economic History Review, 37, 2: 197-210
132. -1985, ?Factory Act Prosecutions: A Hidden Consensus?, The Economic History Review, 38, 3: 431-6
133. Pollard, Sidney 1964, ?The Factory Village in the Industrial Revolution?, The English Historical Review, 79, 312: 513-31
134. -1968 [1965], The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, Harmondsworth: Penguin
135. -1980, ?A New Estimate of British Coal Production, 1750-1850?, The Economic History Review, 33, 2: 212-35
136. Pomeranz, Kenneth 2000, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy, Princeton: Princeton University Press
137. Postone, Moishe 1993, Time, Labor, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx?s Critical Theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
138. Redford, Arthur 1976 [1926], Labour Migration in England, 1800-1850, revised and edited by W.H. Chaloner, Manchester: Manchester University Press
139. Reynolds, Terry S. 1983, Stronger than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
140. Rodgers, H.B. 1960, ?The Lancashire Cotton Industry in 1840?, Transactions and Papers of the Institute of British Geographers, 28: 135-53
141. Rose, Mary B. 1986, The Gregs of Quarry Bank Mill: The Rise and Decline of a Family Firm, 1750-1914, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
142. Rosenberg, Nathan 1994, Exploring the Black Box: Technology, Economics, and History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
143. Samuel, Raphael 1977, ?Workshop of the World: Steam Power and Hand Technology in Mid-Victorian Britain?, History Workshop Journal, 3, 1: 6-72
144. Satterthwaite, David 2009, ?The Implications of Population Growth and Urbanization for Climate Change?, Environment and Urbanization, 21, 2: 545-67
145. Schaffer, Simon 1994, ?Babbage?s Intelligence: Calculating Engines and the Factory System?, Critical Inquiry, 21, 1: 203-27
146. Senior papers, National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth: Nassau William Senior. Shaw, John 1984, Water Power in Scotland, 1550-1870, Edinburgh: John s
147. Sieferle, Rolf Peter 2001 [1982], The Subterranean Forest: Energy Systems and the Industrial Revolution, Cambridge: The White Horse Press
148. Smil, Vaclav 2008, Energy in Nature and Society: General Energetics of Complex Systems, Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press
149. Smith, Neil 2008 [1984], Uneven Development: Nature, Capital, and the Production of Space, Athens, GA.: Georgia University Press
150. Steffen, Will, Paul J. Crutzen and John R. McNeill 2007, ?The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature?, AMBIO, 36, 8: 614-21
151. Storper, Michael and Richard Walker 1989, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Stuart, Robert 1824, A Descriptive History of the Steam Engine, London: John Knight and Henry Lacey. Tann, Jennifer 1970, The Development of the Factory, London: Cornmarket Press
152. -1973a, ?Richard Arkwright and Technology?, History, 58, 192: 29-44
153. -1973b, ?The Employment of Power in the West of England Wool Textile Industry, 1790-1840?, in Textile History and Economic History: Essays in Honour of Miss Julia de Lacy Mann, edited by Negley B. Harte and Kenneth George Ponting, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
154. Taylor, A.J. 1949, ?Concentration and Specialization in the Lancashire Cotton Industry, 1825-1850?, The Economic History Review, 1, 2/3: 114-22
155. The Circulator of Useful Knowledge, Literature, Amusement, and General Information 1825, ?Mr. M?Culloch?s Lectures on Political Economy, at the London Tavern?, 9 April: 228-32
156. The Civil Engineer and Architects? Journal 1840, ?Comparative Power of Steam Engines?, 3: 7-8
157. The Scottish Jurist 1835, ?M?Leod v. Buchanan and Rose?, 24 January. Thom archive, Bute Museum, Rothesay: Robert Thom. Thomas, Brinley 1985, ?Escaping from Constraints: The Industrial Revolution in a Malthusian Context?, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 15, 4: 729-53
158. Thompson, Edward Palmer 1966 [1963], The Making of the English Working Class, New YorkVintage.
159. -1967, ?Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism?, Past and Present, 38: 56-97
160. Trainer, Ted 2012, ?A Critique of Jacobson and Delucchi?s Proposals for a World Renewable Energy Supply?, Energy Policy, 44: 476-81
161. Turner, Herbert Arthur 1962, Trade Union Growth, Structure and Policy, London: Allen and Unwin.
162. Turner, W.H.K. 1958, ?The Significance of Water Power in Industrial Location: Some Perthshire Examples?, Scottish Geographical Magazine, 74, 2: 98-115
163. Ure, Andrew 1835, The Philosophy of Manufactures: Or, An Exposition of the Scientific, Moral and Commercial Economy of the Factory System, London: Charles Knight
164. -1836, The Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain, London: Charles Knight.
165. von Tunzelmann, G.N 1978 Steam Power and British Industrialization to 1860, Oxford Clarendon Press.
166. Ward, J.T. 1962, The Factory Movement, 1830-1855, London: Macmillan and Co. Weart, Spencer 2003, The Discovery of Global Warming, Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press
167. Wilkinson, Richard G. 1973, Poverty and Progress: An Ecological Model of Economic Development, London: Methuen.
168. Williamson, Jeffrey G. 1988, ?Migrant Selectivity, Urbanization, and Industrial Revolutions?, Population and Development Review, 14, 2: 287-314
169. Woolrich, A.P. 1997, ?John Farey, Jr. (1791-1851), Engineer and Polymath?, History of Technology, 19: 112-42
170. -1998, ?John Farey, Jr., Technical Author and Draughtsman: His Contribution to Rees?s Cyclopedia?, Industrial Archaeology Review, 20, 1: 49-67
171. -2000, ?John Farey and His Treatise on the Steam Engine of 1827?, History of Technology, 22: 63-106
172. Wrigley, Edward Anthony 1962, ?The Supply of Raw Materials in the Industrial Revolution?, The Economic History Review, 15, 1: 1-16
173. -1972, ?The Process of Modernization and the Industrial Revolution in England?, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 3, 2: 225-59
174. -1988, ?The Limits to Growth: Malthus and the Classical Economists?, Population and Development Review, 14, Supplement: Population and Resources in Western Intellectual Traditions, 30-48
175. 1990 1988, Continuity, Chance and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
176. -2000, ?The Divergence of England: The Growth of the English Economy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries?, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6, 10: 117-41
177. -2004, Poverty, Progress, and Population, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
178. -2010, Energy and the English Industrial Revolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
179. Zalasiewicz, Jan, Mark Williams, Alan Smith, Tiffany L. Barry, Angela L. Coe, Paul R. Bown, Patrick Brenchley, David Cantrill, Andrew Gale, Philip Gibbard, F. John Gregory, Mark W. Hounslow, Andrew C. Kerr, Paul Pearson, Robert Knox, John Powell, Colin Waters, John Marshall, Michael Oates, Peter Rawson and Philip Stone 2008, ?Are We Now Living in the Anthropocene?, GSA Today, 18, 2: 4-8.