Review Article: Potential geomorphic consequences of a future great (Mw Combining double low line 8.0+) Alpine Fault earthquake, South Island, New Zealand

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences

Volumn 13, Issue 9, 2013, Pages 2279-2299

  Robinson, T R ^a   Davies, T R H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CANTERBURY   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALLUVIAL FAN; DAM; EARTHQUAKE EVENT; EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE; EARTHQUAKE RECURRENCE; EARTHQUAKE RUPTURE; FAULT; FLOODING; FLOODPLAIN; HAZARD ASSESSMENT; LIQUEFACTION; TSUNAMI;

NEW ZEALAND; SOUTH ISLAND; SOUTHERN ALPS;

EID: 84884766938     PISSN: 15618633     EISSN: 16849981     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/nhess-13-2279-2013     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Adams, J.: Contemporary uplift and erosion of the Southern Alps, New Zealand: Summary, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 91, 2-4, 1980a.
2. Adams, J.: Paleoseismicity of the Alpine fault seismic gap, New Zealand, Geology, 8, 72-76, 1980b.
3. Adams, J.: Earthquake-dammed lakes in New Zealand, Geology, 9, 215-219, 1981.
4. Anderson, H., Beanland, S., Blick, G., Darby, D., Downes, G., Haines, J., Jackson, J., Robinson, R., and Webb, T.: The 1968 May 23 Inangahua, New Zealand, earthquake: an integrated geological, geodetic, and seismological source model, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 37, 59-86, 1994. (Pubitemid 24427203)
5. Beavan, J., Moore, M., and Pearson, C.: Crustal deformation during 1994-1998 due to oblique continental collision in the central Southern Alps, New Zealand, and implications for seismic potential of the Alpine fault, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 233-255, 1999.
6. Beavan, J., Samsonov, S., Denys, P., Sutherland, R., Palmer, N., and Denham, M.: Oblique slip on the Puysegur subduction interface in the 2009 JulyMW 7.8 Dusky Sound earthquake from GPS and InSAR observations: implications for the tectonics of southwestern New Zealand, Geophys. J. Int., 183, 1265-1286, 2010a.
7. Beavan, J., Denys, P., Denham, M., Hager, B., Herring, T., and Molnar, P.: Distribution of present-day vertical deformation across the Southern Alps, New Zealand, from 10 years of GPS data, Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, 7-11, 2010b.
8. Beavan, J., Fielding, E., Motagh, M., Samsonov, S., and Donnelly, N.: Fault Location and Slip Distribution of the 22 February 2011 Mw 6.2 Christchurch, New Zealand, Earthquake from Geodetic Data, Seismol. Res. Lett., 82, 789-799, doi:10.1785/gssrl.82.6.789, 2011.
9. Becker, J. S., Johnston, D. M., Paton, D., Hancox, G. T., Davies, T. R. H., McSaveney, M. J., and Manville, V. R.: Response to Landslide Dam Failure Emergencies: Issues Resulting from the October 1999 Mount Adams Landslide and Dam-Break Flood in the Poerua River, Westland, New Zealand, Nat. Hazards, 8, 35- 42, doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1527-6988(2007)8:2(35), 2007.
10. Berril, J. B., Mulqueen, P. C., and Ooi, E. T. C.: Liquefaction of Kaiapoi in the 1901 Cheviot, New Zealand, earthquake, Bulletin of the New Zealand National Society of Earthquake Engineering, 27, 178-189, 1994.
11. Berryman, K. and Villamor, P.: Surface rupture of the Poulter Fault in the 1929 March 9 Arthur's Pass earthquake, and redefinition of the Kakapo Fault, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 47, 341-351, 2004. (Pubitemid 39000983)
12. Berryman, K., Beanland, S., Cooper, A. F., Cutten, H. N., Norris, R. J., and Wood, P. R.: The Alpine Fault, New Zealand: variation in Quaternary tectonic style and geomorphic expression, Annales Tectonicae, VI, 126-163, 1992. (Pubitemid 24393186)
13. Berryman, K., Alloway, B. S., Almond, P., Barrell, D., Duncan, R. P., McSaveney, M. J., Read, S., and Tonkin, P.: Alpine fault rupture and landscape evolution in Westland, New Zealand, in: Proceedings 5th International Conference of Geomorphology, Tokyo, 2001.
14. Berryman, K., Cooper, A. F., Norris, R. J., Villamor, P., Sutherland, R., Wright, T., Schermer, E., Langridge, R., and Biasi, G.: Late Holocene Rupture History of the Alpine Fault in SouthWestland, New Zealand, B. Seismol. Soc. Am., 102, 620-638, 2012.
15. Bhattacharya, S., Hyodo, M., Goda, K., Tazoh, T., and Taylor, C. A.: Liquefaction of soil in the Tokyo Bay area from the 2011 Tohoku (Japan) earthquake, Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng., 31, 1618- 1628, 2011.
16. Bouchon, M. and Vallée, M.: Observation of Long Supershear Rupture During the Magnitude 8.1 Kunlunshan Earthquake, Science, 301, 824-826, 2003. (Pubitemid 36962621)
17. Bourne, S. J., Arnadottir, T., and Beavan, J.: Crustal deformation of the Marlborough fault zone in the South Island of New Zealand: Geodetic constraints over the interval 1982-1994, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 30147-30165, doi:10.1029/98JB02228, 1998. (Pubitemid 128665319)
18. Bull, W. B.: Prehistorical earthquakes on the Alpine fault, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 6037-6050, doi:10.1016/0148- 9062(94)92684-0, 1996.
19. Bull, W. B.: Lichenometry dating of coseismic changes to a New Zealand landslide complex, Ann. Geophys-Italy, 46, 1155-1167, 2003.
20. Chinn, T. J.: Distribution of the glacial water resources of New Zealand, J. Hydrol. (New Zealand), 40, 139-187, 2001. (Pubitemid 34043265)
21. Cooper, A. F.: Retrograde Alteration of Chromian Kyanite in Metachert and Amphibolite Whiteschist from the Southern Alps, New Zealand, with Implications for Uplift on the Alpine Fault, Miner. Petrol., 75, 153-164, doi:10.1007/BF00389775, 1980.
22. Cooper, A. F. and Norris, R. J.: Estimates for the timing of the last coseismic displacement on the Alpine fault, northern Fiordland, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 40, 303-307, 1990.
23. Costa, J. E. and Schuster, R. L.: The formation and failure of natural dams, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 100, 1054-1068, 1988.
24. Costa, J. E. and Schuster, R. L.: Documented Historical Landslide Dams from Around the World: U.S. Geological Survey Open- File Report 91-239, 490 pp., 1991.
25. Coulter, R. F.: Tectonic Geomorphology and Seismic Hazard of the Mt Fyffe section of the Hope fault, MSc. Thesis, University of Canterbury, 2007.
26. Cowan, H. A.: Late Quaternary displacements on the Hope Fault at Glynn Wye, North Canterbury, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 33, 285-293, 1990.
27. Cowan, H. A.: The North Canterbury earthquake of September 1, 1888, J. Roy. Soc. New Zeal., 21, 1-12, 1991.
28. Cowan, H. A.: Structure, seismicity and tectonics of the Porter's Pass-Amberley fault zone, North Canterbury, New Zealand, Ph.D. thesis, University of Canterbury, 247 pp., 1992.
29. Cowan, H. A. and McGlone, M. S.: Late Holocene displacements and characterstic earthquakes on the Hope River segment of the Hope fault, New Zealand, J. Roy. Soc. New Zeal., 21, 373-384, 1991.
30. Cubrinovski, M., Bray, J. B., Taylor, M., Giorgini, S., Bradley, B., Wotherspoon, L., and Zupan, J.: Soil Liquefaction Effects in the Central Business District during the February 2011 Christchurch Earthquake, Seismol. Res. Lett., 82, 893-904, 2011.
31. Dai, F. C., Xu, C., Yao, X., Xu, L., Tu, X. B., and Gong, Q. M.: Spatial distribution of landslides triggered by the 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake, China, J. Asian Earth Sci., 40, 883-895, doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2010.04.010, 2011.
32. Davey, F. J., Henyey, T., Kleffmann, S., and Melhuish, A.: Crustal reflections from the Alpine Fault Zone, South Island, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 38, 37-41, 1995.
33. Davies, T. R. H.: Landslide-dambreak floods at Franz Josef Glacier township, Westland, New Zealand: a risk assessment, J. Hydrol (New Zealand), 41, 1-17, 2002.
34. Davies, T. R. H. and Korup, O.: Persistent alluvial fanhead trenching resulting from large, infrequent sediment inputs, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 32, 725-742, doi:10.1002/esp, 2007. (Pubitemid 46647204)
35. Davies, T. R. H. and McSaveney, M. J.: Runout of rock avalanches and volcanic debris avalanches (Invited Keynote Lecture), in: Proceedings of the international conference on fast slope movements: prediction and prevention for risk mitigation, edited by: Piceralli, L., Pàtron, Naples, 2006.
36. Davies, T. R. H. and Scott, B. K.: Dambreak flood hazard from the Callery River,Westland, New Zealand, J. Hydrol (New Zealand), 36, 1-13, 1997.
37. Davies, T. R. H., McSaveney, M. J., and Doscher, C.: Monitoring and effects of landslide-induced aggradation in the Poerua Valley, Westland, EQC Report, Project No. 03/499, 2005.
38. Davies, T. R. H., Manville, V., Kunz, M., and Donadini, L.: Modelling landslide dambreak flood magnitudes: a case study, J. Hydrol. Eng., 133, 713-720, 2007. (Pubitemid 46995172)
39. DeMets, C., Gordon, R. G., Argus, D. F., and Stein, S.: Effect of recent revisions to the geomagnetic reversal timescale on estimates of current plate motions (Paper 94GL02118), Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 2191-2194, doi:10.1029/94GL02118, 1994.
40. De Pascale, G. P. and Langridge, R. M.: First direct geological evidence of a great earthquake in 1717, central Alpine Fault, New Zealand, Geology, 2012
41. Downes, G. L.: The 1855 January 23 M8+ Wairarapa earthquake - what contemporary accounts tell us about it, in: The 1855 Wairarapa Earthquake Symposium, Wellington, New Zealand, 8-10 September 2005, 1-11, 2005.
42. Dowrick, D. J.: Damage and intensities in the M7.8 1929 Murchison, New Zealand, earthquake, Bulletin of the New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering, 27, 190-204, 1994.
43. Dowrick, D. J.: Strong ground shaking in the 1855Wairarapa earthquake, in: The 1855Wairarapa Earthquake Symposium,Wellington, New Zealand, 8-10 September 2005, 79-83, 2005.
44. Drobyshev, V. N.: Glacial catastrophe of 20 September 2002 in North Osetia, Russian Journal of Earth Sciences, 8, 1-25, doi:10.2205/2006ES000207, 2006.
45. Dykstra, J.: The role of mass wasting and ice retreat in the post- LGM evolution of Milford Sound, Fiordland, New Zealand, Ph.D. thesis, University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 2012.
46. Fritz, H. M., Mohammed, F., and Yoo, J.: Lituya Bay Landslide Impact Generated Mega-Tsunami 50th Anniversary, Pure Appl. Geophys., 166, 153-175, doi:10.1007/s00024-008-0435- 4, 2009.
47. Gage, M.: Rocks and Landscape, in: The Natural History of Canterbury, edited by: Knox, G. A., Reed, A. H., and Reed, A. W., Canterbury University Press, 25-43, 1969.
48. GNS Science: available at: http://info.geonet.org.nz/display/slide/ Young+River+Landslide, last access: 27 November 2012.
49. Gledhill, K., Ristau, J., Reyners, M., Fry, B., and Holden, C.: The Darfield (Canterbury, New Zealand) Mw 7.1 Earthquake of September 2010: A Preliminary Seismological Report, Seismol. Res. Lett., 82, 378-386, doi:10.1785/gssrl.82.3.378, 2011.
50. Gorum, T., Fan, X., van Westen, C. J., Huang, R. Q., Xu, Q., Tang, C., and Wang, G.: Distribution pattern of earthquake-induced landslides triggered by the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Geomorphology, 133, 152-167, 2011.
51. Grapes, R.: Geology and revegetation of an 1855 landslide, Ruamahanga River, Kopuaranga, Wairarapa, Tuatara, Wellington, 30, 77-83, 1988.
52. Grapes, R. and Downes, G.: The 1855 Wairarapa, New Zealand, earthquake: analysis of historical data, Bulletin of the New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering 30, 271- 368, 1997.
53. Grapes, R., Little, T., and Downes, G.: Rupturing of the Awatere fault during the 1848 October 16 Marlborough earthquake, New Zealand: historical and present day evidence, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 41, 387-399, 1998.
54. Griffiths, G. A.: High sediment yields from major rivers of theWestern Southern Alps, New Zealand, Nature, 282, 61-63, 1979. (Pubitemid 10257939)
55. Hainzl, S., Zöller, G., and Kurths, J.: Self-organization of spatiotemporal earthquake clusters, Nonlin. Processes Geophys., 7, 21-29, doi:10.5194/npg-7-21-2000, 2000. (Pubitemid 30319977)
56. Hancox, G. T.: Landslides and liquefaction effects caused by the 1855 Wairarapa earthquake: then and now, in: The 1855 Wairarapa Earthquake Symposium, Wellington, New Zealand, 8-10 September 2005, 84-95, 2005.
57. Hancox, G. T., Perrin, N. D., and Dellow, G. D.: Earthquakeinduced landsliding in New Zealand and implications for MM intensity and seismic hazard assessment, GNS Client Report, 43601B, 1997.
58. Hancox, G. T., McSaveney, M. J., Manville, V. R., and Davies, T. R. H.: The October 1999 Mt Adams rock avalanche and subsequentlandslide dam-break flood and effects in Poerua River,Westland, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 48, 683-705, 2005. (Pubitemid 43072502)
59. Hewitt, K.: Rock avalanches that travel onto glaciers and related developments, Karakoram Himalaya, Inner Asia, Geomorphology, 103, 66-79, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.10.017, 2009.
60. Hewitt, K., Clague, J. J., and Orwin, J. F.: Legacies of catastrophic rock slope failures in mountain landscapes, Earth-Sci. Rev., 87,1-38, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.10.002, 2008.
61. Hicks, D. M., Hill, J., and Shankar, U.: Variation of suspended sediment yields around New Zealand: the relative importance of rainfall and geology, IAHS publication, 236, 149-156, 1996. (Pubitemid 126534320)
62. Holden, C.: Kinematic Source Model of the 22 February 2011 Mw 6.2 Christchurch Earthquake Using Strong Motion Data, Seismol. Res. Lett., 82, 783-788, doi:10.1785/gssrl.82.6.783, 2011.
63. Hovius, N., Stark, C., and Allen, P. A.: Sediment flux from a mountain belt derived by landslide mapping, Geology, 25, 231-234, doi:10.1130/0091- 7613(1997), 1997.
64. Howard, M., Nicol, A., Campbell, J., and Pettinga, J.: Recent Paleoearthquakes of the Porters Pass Fault and Hazard Posed to Christchurch, New Zealand, Proceedings of the Pacific Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 69, 1-8, 2003.
65. Hsü, K. J.: Catastrophic debris streams (sturzstrom) generated by rockfalls, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 86, 129-140, 1975.
66. Huang, R., Pei, X., Fan, X., Zhang, W., Li, S., and Li, B.: The characteristics and failure mechanism of the largest landslide triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake, May 12, 2008, China, Landslides, 9, 131-142, 2011.
67. Huggel, C., Zgraggen-Oswald, S., Haeberli, W., Kääb, A., Polkvoj, A., Galushkin, I., and Evans, S. G.: The 2002 rock/ice avalanche at Kolka/Karmadon, Russian Caucasus: assessment of extraordinary avalanche formation and mobility, and application of Quick- Bird satellite imagery, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 5, 173-187, doi:10.5194/nhess-5-173-2005, 2005. (Pubitemid 40560430)
68. Hull, A. G. and Berryman, K.: Holocene tectonism in the region of the Alpine fault at Lake McKerrow, Fiordland, New Zealand, Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin, 24, 317-331, 1986.
69. Kamp, P. J. J. and Tippett, J. M.: Dynamics of Pacific Plate Crust in the South Island (New Zealand) Zone of Oblique Continent- Continent Convergence, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 16105-16118, doi:10.1029/93JB01091, 1993.
70. Kamp, P. J. J., Green, P. F., and White, S. H.: Fission track analysis reveals character of collisional tectonics in New Zealand, Tectonics, 8, 169-195, 1989.
71. Keefer, D. K: Landslides caused by earthquakes, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 95, 406-421, 1984.
72. Keefer, D. K. and Wilson, R. C.: Predicting earthquake-induced landslides with emphasis on arid and semi-arid environments, in: Landslides in a Semi-Arid Environment with emphasis on the inland valleys of Southern California, Volume No. 2, edited by: Sadler, P. M. and Morton, D. M., Inland Geological Society of Southern California Publications, Riverside, CA, 118-149, 1989.
73. Korup, O.: Geomorphometric characteristics of New Zealand landslide dams, Eng. Geol., 73, 13-35, doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2003.11.003, 2004. (Pubitemid 38464364)
74. Korup, O.: Geomorphic hazard assessment of landslide dams in South Westland, New Zealand: fundamental problems and approaches, Geomorphology, 66, 167-188, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.09.013, 2005. (Pubitemid 40350807)
75. Korup, O. and Tweed, F.: Ice, moraine, and landslide dams in mountainous terrain, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 26, 3406-3422, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.10. 012, 2007. (Pubitemid 350245551)
76. Korup, O., McSaveney, M. J., and Davies, T. R. H.: Sediment generation and delivery from large historic landslides in the Southern Alps, New Zealand, Geomorphology, 61, 189-207, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.01.001, 2004. (Pubitemid 38767916)
77. Langridge, R., Campbell, J., Hill, N., Pere, V., Pope, J., Pettinga, J., Estrada, B., and Berryman, K.: Paleoseismology and slip rate of the Conway Segment of the Hope Fault at Greenburn Stream, South Island, New Zealand, Ann. Geophys-Italy, 46, 1119-1139, doi:10.4401/ag-3449, 2003.
78. Leitner, B., Eberhart-Phillips, D., Anderson, H., and Nabelek, J. L.: A focused look at the Alpine fault, New Zealand: Seismicity, focal mechanisms, and stress observations, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 2193-2220, doi:10.1029/ 2000JB900303, 2001.
79. Li, Y., Gong, J. H., Zhu, J., Ye, L., Song, Y. Q., and Yue, Y. J.: Efficient dam break flood simulation methods for developing a preliminary evacuation plan after theWenchuan Earthquake, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 97-106, doi:10.5194/nhess-12-97- 2012, 2012.
80. Little, T. A. and Rodgers, D. W.: 1855 Wairarapa Fault earthquake: world record strike-slip displacement now even bigger, in: Programme and abstracts, Geoscience Society of New Zealand Miscellaneous Publications, 117A, 64-65, 2004.
81. Malamud, B. D., Turcotte, D. L., Guzzetti, F., and Reichenbach, P.: Landslides, earthquakes, and erosion, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 229, 45-59, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.10.018, 2004. (Pubitemid 40014573)
82. McCahon, I., Mackenzie, J., Dewhirst, R., and Elms, D.: Grey District Lifelines study: Alpine fault earthquake scenario & lifelines vulnerability assessment, Grey District Council, 198 pp., 2005.
83. McCahon, I., Dewhirst, R., and Elms, D.: West Coast Engineering Lifelines study: Alpine fault earthquake scenario,West Coast Regional Council, 204 pp., 2006a.
84. McCahon, I., Dewhirst, R., and Elms, D.: Buller District Council Lifelines study: Alpine fault earthquake scenario, Buller District Council, 208 pp., 2006b.
85. McSaveney, M. J.: The Sherman Glacier rock avalanche of 1964: its emplacement and subsequent effects on the glacier beneath it, Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University, USA, 426 pp., 1975.
86. McSaveney, M. J., Beetham, R. D., and Leonard, G. S.: The 18 May 2005 debris flow disaster at Matata: Causes and mitigation suggestions, GNS Client Report, 71, 51 pp., 2005.
87. Miller, D.: The Alaska earthquake of July 10, 1958: Giant wave in Lituya Bay, B. Seismol. Soc. Am., 50, 253-266, 1960.
88. Nash, T., Bell, D., Davies, T. R. H., and Nathan, S.: Analysis of the formation and failure of Ram Creek landslide dam, South Island, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 51, 187-193, 2008.
89. Nichol, S., Goff, J., Devoy, R., Chague-Goff, C., Hayward, B. and James, I.: Lagoon subsidence and tsunami on the West Coast of New Zealand, Sediment. Geol., 200, 248-262, doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2007.01.019, 2007. (Pubitemid 47189075)
90. Norris, R. J. and Cooper, A. F.: Late Quaternary slip rates and slip partitioning on the Alpine Fault, New Zealand, J. Struct. Geol., 23, 507-520, doi:10.1016/S0191-8141(00)00122-X, 2001. (Pubitemid 32305276)
91. Norris, R. J. and Cooper, A. F.: Origin of small-scale segmentation and transpressional thrusting along the Alpine fault, New Zealand, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 107, 231-240, doi:10.1130/0016- 7606(1995)107<0231, 1995.
92. Ongley, M.: Surface trace of the 1855 earthquake, Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 73, 84-89, 1943.
93. Parker, R. N., Densmore, A. L., Rosser, N. J., de Michele, M., Li, Y., Huang, R., Whadcoat, S., and Petley, D. N.: Mass wasting triggered by the 2008Wenchuan earthquake is greater than orogenic growth, Nat. Geosci., 4, 449-452, doi:10.1038/NGEO1154, 2011.
94. Peterson, T., Ristau, J., Beavan, J., Denys, P., Denham, M., Field, B., François-Holden, C., McCaffrey, R., Palmer, N., Reyners, M., Samsonov, S., and The GeoNet Team: The Mw 6.7 George Sound earthquake of October 15, 2007: response and preliminary results, Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 42, 129-141, 2009.
95. Petrakov, D. A., Chernomorets, S. S., Evans, S. G., and Tutubalina, O. V.: Catastrophic glacial multi-phase mass movements: a special type of glacial hazard, Advances in Geosciences, 14, 211- 218, 2008.
96. Pettinga, J., Yetton, M., Van Dissen, R., and Downes, G.: Earthquake source identification and characterisation for the Canterbury region, South Island, New Zealand, Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 34, 282-317, 2001.
97. Pierson, T. C.: Erosion and deposition by debris flows at Mt Thomas, North Canterbury, New Zealand, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 5, 227-247, 1980.
98. Power, W., Downes, G., McSaveney, M. J., and Beavan, J.: The Fiordland earthquake and tsunami, New Zealand, 21 August 2003, Tsunamis, 31-42, 2005.
99. Quigley, M., Van Dissen, R., Villamor, P., Litchfield, N., Barrell, D., Furlong, K., Stahl, T., Duffy, B., Bilderback, E., Noble, D., Townsend, D., Begg, J., Jongens, R., Ries, W., Claridge, J., Klahn, A., Mackenzie, H., Smith, A., Hornblow, S., Nicol, R., Cox, S., Langridge, R., and Pedley, K.: Surface rupture of the Greendale Fault during the Mw 7.1 Darfield (Canterbury) earthquake, New Zealand: initial findings, Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 43, 236-242, 2010.
100. Reyners, M. andWebb, T.: Large earthquakes near Doubtful Sound, New Zealand 1989-1993, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 45, 109- 120, 2002. (Pubitemid 34463956)
101. Reyners, M., Gledhill, K., andWaters, D.: Tearing of the Subducted Australian Plate during the Te Anau, New Zealand, earthquake of 1988 June 3, Geophys. J. Int., 104, 105-115, 1991.
102. Reznichenko, N. V., Davies, T. R. H., and Alexander, D. J.: Effects of rock avalanches on glacier behaviour and moraine formation, Geomorphology, 132, 327-338, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.05.019, 2011.
103. Rhoades, D. A. and Van Dissen, R.: Estimates of the time-varying hazard of rupture of the Alpine Fault, New Zealand, allowing for uncertainties, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 46, 479-488, 2003. (Pubitemid 38127107)
104. Robinson, D. P., Brough, C., and Das, S.: The Mw 7.8, 2001 Kunlunshan earthquake: Extreme rupture speed variability and effect of fault geometry, J. Geophys. Res., 111, B08303, doi:10.1029/2005JB004137, 2006.
105. Robinson, R., Reyners, M., Webb, T., Arnadottir, T., Beavan, J., Cousins, J., Van Dissen, R., and Pearson, C.: The Mw 6.7 Arthur's Pass Earthquake in the Southern Alps, New Zealand, June 18, 1994, Seismol. Res. Lett., 66, 11-14, 1995.
106. Smith,W. D.: Spatial distribution of felt intensities for New Zealand earthquakes, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 21, 293-311, 1978.
107. Smith, W. D. and Berryman, K.: Earthquake hazard in New Zealand: Inferences from seismology and geology, Royal Society of New Zealand Bulletin, 24, 223-243, 1986.
108. Solov'ev, S. L. and Solov'eva, O. N.: Exponential distribution of the total number of an earthquakes aftershocks and the decrease of their mean value with increasing depth, Bulletin of the Academic Sciences of the USSR Geophysics Series, 1053-1060, 1962 (English Translation).
109. Stauder, W.: The Alaska earthquake of July 10, 1958: seismic studies, B. Seismol. Soc. Am., 50, 293-322, 1960.
110. Sutherland, R.: Displacement since the Pliocene along the southern section of the Alpine Fault, New Zealand, Geology, 22, 327-330, 1994.
111. Sutherland, R. and Norris, R. J.: Late Quaternary displacement rate, paleoseismicity, and geomorphic evolution of the Alpine Fault: Evidence from Hokuri Creek, South Westland, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 38, 419-430, 1995. (Pubitemid 26461305)
112. Sutherland, R., Eberhart-Phillips, D., Harris, R. A., Stern, T., Beavan, J., Ellis, S., Henrys, S., Cox, S., Norris, R. J., Berryman, K., Townend, J., Bannister, S., Pettinga, J., Leitner, B., Wallace, L., Little, T. A., Cooper, A. F., Yetton, M. D., and Stirling, M. W.: Do Great Earthquakes Occur on the Alpine Fault in Central South Island, New Zealand?, Geoph. Monog. Series, 175, 235- 251, 2007.
113. Tang, C., Zhu, J., Ding, J., Cui, X. F., Chen, L., and Zhang, J. S.: Catastrophic debris flows triggered by a 14 August 2010 rainfall at the epicenter of theWenchuan earthquake, Landslides, 8, 485- 497, doi:10.1007/s10346-011-0269-5, 2011.
114. Tarr, R. S. and Martin, L. (Eds.): The earthquakes at Yakutat Bay, Alaska in September, 1899, United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 69, 1-131, 1912.
115. Tocher, D.: The Alaska earthquake of July 10, 1958: Introduction, B. Seismol. Soc. Am., 500, 217-322, 1960.
116. USGS (United States Geological Survey): available at: http: //earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/virtualtour/earthquake.php,last access: 23 November 2012.
117. Utsu, T.: Aftershocks and Earthquake statistics (1): some parameters which characterise an aftershock sequence and their interrelations, Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Series 7, Geophysics, 3, 129-195, 1970.
118. Utsu, T., Ogata, Y., and Matsu'ura, R. S.: The Centenary of the Omori Formula for a Decay Law of Aftershock Activity, J. Phys. Earth, 43, 1-33, 1995. (Pubitemid 26456840)
119. Van Dissen, R. and Yeats, R. S.: Hope fault, Jordan thrust, and uplift of the Seaward Kaikoura Range, New Zealand, Geology, 19, 393-396, 1991.
120. Wellman, H. W.: New Zealand Quaternary tectonics, Geol. Rundsch., 43, 248-257, 1955.
121. Wellman, H. W.: An uplift map for the South Island of New Zealand, and a model for uplift of the Southern Alps: Wellington, Royal Society of New Zealand, Bulletin 18, 13-20, 1979.
122. Wellman, H. W. and Willett, R. W.: The Geology of the West Coast from Abut Head to Milford Sound - Part 1, Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 71, 282-306, 1942.
123. Wells, A. and Goff, J.: Coastal dunes in Westland, New Zealand, provide a record of paleoseismic activity on the Alpine fault, Geology, 35, 731-734, 2007. (Pubitemid 47303955)
124. Wells, A., Yetton, M. D., and Duncan, R. P.: Prehistoric dates of the most recent Alpine fault earthquakes, New Zealand, Geology, 27, 995-998, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0995, 1999.
125. Whitehouse, I. E. and Griffiths, G. A.: Frequency and hazard of large rock avalanches in the central Southern Alps, New Zealand, Geology, 11, 331-334, 1983.
126. Wood, H. O. and Neumann, F.: Modified Mercalli intensity of 1931, B. Seismol. Soc. Am., 21, 277-283, 1931.
127. Wright, C. A.: The AD 930 long-runout Round Top debris avalanche, Westland, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 41, 493-497, 1998. (Pubitemid 29212466)
128. Xu, Q., Zhang, S., Li, W. L., and van Asch, Th. W. J.: The 13 August 2010 catastrophic debris flows after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, China, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 12, 201-216, doi:10.5194/nhess-12-201-2012, 2012.
129. Yetton, M. D.: Progress in understanding the paleoseismicity of the central and northern Alpine Fault, Westland, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Geol. Geop., 41, 475-483, 1998. (Pubitemid 29212464)
130. Yetton, M. D., Wells, A., and Traylen, N. J.: The probabilities and consequences of the next Alpine fault earthquake, EQC, Research Report 95/193, available at: http://www.eqc.govt.nz/research/researchpapers/p-019.aspx, last access: January 2013,1998.