Chlorine

Handbook of Toxicology of Chemical Warfare Agents

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 313-320

  Talmage, Sylvia S ^a  

^a Summitec Corporation   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84884761345     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-374484-5.00022-5     Document Type: Chapter

References (50)

1. ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists) for Chemical and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs). Threshold Limit Values 2001, ACGIH, Cincinnati, OH, TLVs.
2. AIHA (American Industrial Hygiene Association) Emergency Response Planning Guidelines, Chlorine 1997, AIHA, Akron, OH.
3. Alarie, Y. (1980). Toxicological evaluation of airborne chemical irritants and allergens using respiratory reflex reactions. In Proceedings, Symposium on Inhalation Toxicology and Technology, pp. 207-31. Ann Arbor Science, MI.
4. Alarie Y. Dose-response analysis in animal studies: prediction of human responses. Environ. Health Perspect. 1981, 42:9-13.
5. Amoore J.E., Hautala E. Odor as an aid to chemical safety: odor thresholds compared with Threshold Limit Values and volatilities for 214 industrial chemicals in air and water dilution. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1983, 3:272-290.
6. Anglen D.M. Sensory response of human subjects to chlorine in air. Ph. D. Dissertation 1981, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, Available fromUniversity Microfilms, Inc.
7. ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) Standard test method for estimating sensory irritancy of airborne chemicals. Annual Book of ASTM Standards 1991, Vol. 11.04. ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
8. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) (2007). Toxicological Profile for Chlorine. US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA.
9. Avital A., Noviski N., Bar-Yishay E., Springer C., Levy M., Godfrey S. Nonspecific bronchial reactivity in asthmatic children depends on severity but not age. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis 1991, 144:36-38.
10. Barrow C.C., Steinhagen W.H. Sensory irritation tolerance development to chlorine in F-344 rats following repeated inhalation. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1982, 65:383-389.
11. Barrow C.S., Alarie Y., Warrick J.C., Stock M.F. Comparison of the sensory irritation response in mice to chlorine and hydrogen chloride. Arch. Environ. Health 1977, 32:68-76.
12. Bitron M.D., Aharonson E.F. Delayed mortality of mice following inhalation of acute doses of formaldehyde, sulfur dioxide, chlorine and bromine. J. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. 1978, 39:129-138.
13. CEH (Chemical Economics Handbook) (2005). Chlorine/sodium hydroxide. On-line database. http://www.sriconsulting.com/CEH/Public/Reports/733.1000/.
14. Chang J.C.F., Barrow C.S. Sensory tolerance and cross-tolerance in F-344 rats exposed to chlorine or formaldehyde gas. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1984, 76:319-327.
15. CIIT (Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology) (1993). A chronic inhalation toxicity study of chlorine in female and male B6C3F1 mice and Fischer 344 rats. CIIT, Research Triangle Park, NC.
16. Cockcroft D.W., Killian D.N., Mellon J.J.A., Hargreave F.E. Bronchial reactivity to inhaled histamine: a method and clinical survey. Clin. Allergy 1977, 7:235-243.
17. D'Alessandro A., Kuschner W., Wong H., Boushey H.A., Blanc P.D. Exaggerated responses to chlorine inhalation among persons with nonspecific airway hyperreactivity. Chest 1996, 109:331-337.
18. Demnati R., Fraser R., Plaa G., Malo J.L. Histopathological effects of acute exposure to chlorine gas on Sprague-Dawley rat lungs. J. Environ. Path. Toxicol. Oncol. 1995, 14:15-19.
19. Eaton D.L., Klaassen C.D. Chapter 2: Principles of toxicology. Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons 2001, 11-34. McGraw Hill, New York. 6th edition. C.D. Klaassen (Ed.).
20. Gagnaire F., Azim S., Bonnet P., Hecht G., Hery M. Comparison of the sensory irritation response in mice to chlorine and nitrogen trichloride. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1994, 14:405-409.
21. German Research Association (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) List of MAK and BAT Values, 2008. Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area. Report No. 35 2007, Wiley-VCH, Germany.
22. Haber L.F. The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War 1986, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
23. IPCS (International Programme on Chemical Safety) (2008). INCHEM Online database, Chlorine. http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/chemical/pim947.htm%23SectionTitle% 3A2.4%20%20First%20aid%20measures%20and%20management%20principles.
24. 50 concentration of chlorine gas in the nasal passages of rats and mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol 1983, 71:225-236.
25. Joosting P., Verberk M. Emergency population exposure: a methodological approach. Recent Advances in the Assessment of Health Effects of Environmental Pollution 1974, 4:2005-2029.
26. Klonne D.R., Ulrich C.E., Riley M.G., Hamm T.E., Morgan K.T., Barrow C.S. One-year inhalation toxicity study of chlorine in rhesus monkeys. (Macaca mulatta). Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1987, 9:557-572.
27. MacEwen J.D., Vernot E.H. Toxic Hazards Research Unit Annual Technical Report: 1972. AMRL-TR-72-62, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH 1972, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, Available from.
28. Matheson Gas Co. (1980). Matheson Gas Data Book, 6th edition. Division Searle Medical Products USA, Lyndhurst, NJ.
29. Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment (SDU Uitgevers) (2000). Nationale MAC List, 2000. The Hague, The Netherlands.
30. Morris J.B., Wilkie W.S., Shusterman D.J. Acute respiratory responses of the mouse to chlorine. Toxicol. Sci. 2005, 83:380-387.
31. NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) (1976). Criteria for a recommended standard.. occupational exposure to chlorine. NIOSH Publication 76-170. US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, DC.
32. NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) (2005). NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. (Available online:). http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/.
33. Nodelman V., Ultman J.S. Longitudinal distribution of chlorine absorption in human airways: a comparison to ozone absorption. J. Appl. Physiol. 1999, 87:2073-2080.
34. NRC (National Research Council), Committee on Toxicology (1984). Emergency and Continuous Exposure Limits for Selected Airborne Contaminants, Vol. 2. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
35. NRC (National Research Council) Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals: Volume 4 2004, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
36. O'Neil, C.E. (1991). Immune responsiveness in chlorine exposed rats. PB92-124478, Prepared for National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, OH.
37. The Merck Index 2001, Merck & Co., Whitehouse Station, NJ. 13th edition. M.J. O'Neil, A. Smith, P.E. Heckelman (Eds.).
38. Rotman H.H., Fliegelman M.J., Moore T., Smith R.G., Anglen D.M., Kowalski C.J., Weg J.G. Effects of low concentration of chlorine on pulmonary function in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 1983, 54:1120-1124.
39. Salem H., Ternay A.L., Smart J.K. 1: Brief history and use of chemical warfare agents in warfare and terrorism. Chemical Warfare Agents: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics 2008, 1-19. CRC Press, Boca Raton. J.A. Romano, B.J. Lukey, H. Salem (Eds.).
40. Schins R.P., Emmen H., Hoogendijk L., Borm P.J.A. Nasal inflammatory and respiratory parameters in human volunteers during and after repeated exposure to chlorine. Eur. Respir. J. 2000, 16:626-632.
41. Shusterman D.J., Murphy M.A., Balmes J.R. Subjects with seasonal allergic rhinitis and nonrhinitic subjects react differentially to nasal provocation with chlorine gas. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1998, 101:732-740.
42. Shusterman D.J., Murphy M.A., Balmes J.R. Influence of age, gender, and allergy status on nasal reactivity to inhaled chlorine. Inhal. Toxicol 2003, 15:1179-1189.
43. Smith M.G., Stone W., Guo R.-F., Ward P.A., Suntres Z., Mukherjee S., Das S.K. Chemical Warfare Agents: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics 2008, 12. 261. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Vesicants and oxidative stressp. J.A. Romano, B.J. Lukey, H. Salem (Eds.).
44. Teitelbaum D.T. Chapter forty-eight: The halogens. In Patty's Toxicology, 5th edition 2001, Vol. 3:731-825. John Wiley & Sons, New York. E. Bingham, B. Cohrssen, C.H. Powell (Eds.).
45. ten Berge W.F., Vis van Heemst M. Validity and accuracy of a commonly used toxicity-assessment model in risk analysis. IChemE Symposium Series No 1986, 80:17-21.
46. ten Berge W.F., Zwart A., Appleman L.M. Concentration-time mortality response relationship of irritant and systemically acting vapors and gases. J. Hazard. Mater 1986, 13:301-310.
47. Witschi H.R., Last J.A. Chapter 15: Toxic responses of the respiratory system. Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons 2001, 515-534. McGraw Hill, New York. 6th edition. C.D. Klaassen (Ed.).
48. Withers R.M.J., Lees F.P. The assessment of major hazards: the lethal toxicity of chlorine. Part 2, model of toxicity to man. J. Hazard. Mater 1985, 12:283-302.
49. Wolf D.C., Morgan K.T., Gross E.A., Barrow C., Moss O.R., James R.A., Popp J.A. Two-year inhalation exposure of female and male B6C3F1 mice and F344 rats to chlorine gas induces lesions confined to the nose. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol 1995, 24:111-131.
50. Zwart A., Woutersen R.A. Acute inhalation toxicity of chlorine in rats and mice: time-concentration-mortality relationships and effects on respiration. J. Hazard. Mater 1988, 19:195-208.