The legal status of animals under animal welfare law

Environmental and Planning Law Journal

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 1992, Pages 20-30

  Jamieson, Philip ^a  

^a Gov of South Australia   (Australia)

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EID: 84883854416     PISSN: 0813300X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (246)

1. Now in its second edition: P. Singer, Animal Liberation (2nd ed., New York, New York Review, 1990).
2. See, for example, the comment of Dr Margaret Stone in evidence before the Senate Select Committee on Animal Welfare: Animal Experimentation: Report by the Senate Select Committee on Animal Welfare (Canberra, AGPS, 1989), at p. 36.
3. This view was early expressed by H. Salt, "The Rights of Animals" (1899-1900) 10 Ethics 206 at 213.
4. See further, S. Clark, The Moral Status of Animals (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1977), at pp. 11-13.
5. Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Common Law (by Mark de Wolfe Howe, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1963), at pp. 24-30
6. E. Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas (2nd ed., London, Macmillan & Co., 1924), at p. 264.
7. For a recent account, see M. White, "Arrest of Ships-Queensland Jurisdiction" (1988) 18 Queensland Law Society Journal 19.
8. See further, R. Pound, Jurisprudence (St Paul, Minn., West Publishing Co., 1959), Vol. IV, at p. 203.
9. R. Pound, Jurisprudence (St Paul, Minn., West Publishing Co., 1959), Vol. IV, at p. 56.
10. R. Pound, Jurisprudence (St Paul, Minn., West Publishing Co., 1959), Vol. IV, at p. 41.
11. See, for example, the comment of Dr Margaret Stone in evidence before the Senate Select Committee on Animal Welfare: Animal Experimentation: Report by the Senate Select Committee on Animal Welfare (Canberra, AGPS, 1989), at p. 36.
12. There is not even at common law an offence of cruelty to an animal: R. v. Collyer 2 East. P.C. 1074
13. R. v. Parker (Unreported judgment of Heath J., Common Pleas, July Sessions, 1794).
14. Though see the remarks of Lord Ellenborough as to cock-fighting in Squires v. Whisken (1811) 3 Camp. 140 at 141; 170 E.R. 1333 at 1334, and the opinion of Lord Erskine given in the House of Lords, 15 May 1809, suggesting public cruelty to animals to be, in many circumstances, an indictable offence at common law: Hansard, (1st Series), XIV, p. 554.
15. See K. McK. Norrie, "Trusts for Animals" (1987) 32 Journal of the Law Society of Scotland 386
16. P. Jamieson, "Trusts for the Maintenance of Particular Animals" (1987) U.Q.L.J. 175
17. P. Jamieson, "On Charity's Edge-The Animal Welfare Trust" (1987) 13 Monash University Law Review 1.
18. C. Stone, "Should Trees Have Legal Standing?-Towards Legal Rights for Natural Objects" (1972) 45 Southern Californian Law Review 450 at 458.
19. Stone's essay is reprinted in Should Trees have Legal Standing?-Towards Legal Rights for Natural Objects (Los Altos: William Kaufman, 1974; rev. ed., New York, Avon Books, 1975).
20. Stone's essay is reprinted in Should Trees have Legal Standing?-Towards Legal Rights for Natural Objects (Los Altos: William Kaufman, 1974; rev. ed., New York, Avon Books, 1975).
21. B. Thomas, "Antinomy: The Use, Rights and Regulation of Laboratory Animals" (1986) 13 Pepperdine Law Review 723 at 740.
22. R. Galvin, "What Rights for Animals? A Modest Proposal" (1985) 2 Environmental Law Review 245 at 248.
23. D. Favre, "Wildlife Rights: The Ever-Widening Circle" (1979) 9 Environmental Law 242 at 251-252.
24. The following discussion of "Standing" is a more detailed discussion of this issue which is dealt with by the author in "Animals" in Halsbury's Laws of Australia (Sydney, Butterworths, 1991), Vol. 1, at [20-610]
25. Though in Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, 471 F. Supp. 985 (1979)
26. 639 F. 2d 495 (1981), the Palila (a type of bird) was the first-named plaintiff in the suit, although the suit did not rely on the Palila as a party and the Court did not consider it as a party
27. See further, J. Nelson, "Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources: State Governments Fall Prey to the Endangered Species Act of 1973" (1982) 10 Ecology Law Quarterly 281.
28. See, e.g., Thome v. Doug Wade Consultants Ply Ltd [1985] V.R. 433 at 485 et seq.
29. Australian Conservation Foundation v. Commonwealth (1980) 146 C.L.R. 493
30. Onus v. Alcoa of Australia Ltd (1981) 149 C.L.R. 27
31. King v. Goussetis (1986) 60 L.G.R.A. 116 at 120
32. McHugh J. A. See further, G. Bates, Environmental Law in Australia (2nd ed., Butterworths, 1986), at pp. 275, 285
33. B. Preston, Environmental Litigation (The Law Book Co. Ltd, 1989), at p. 25 et seq.
34. though, for example, see 123 of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (N.S.W.)
35. as construed in Rowley v. N.S.W. Leather Trading Co. Pty Ltd (1980) 46 L.G.R.A. 250
36. followed in National Trust of Australia (N.S.W.) v. Minister Administering the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (1984) 53 L.G.R.A. 37 at 43.
37. 382 N.Y. Supp. 2d 1004 (1976).
38. 382 N.Y. Supp. 2d 1009 (1976).
39. 392 N.Y. Supp. 2d 444 (1977).
40. 380 N.E. 2d 277 (1978).
41. 382 N.Y. Supp. 2d 445 (1976).
42. Gee v. Pritchard (1818) 2 Swans. 402 at 413
43. 36 E.R. 670 at 674 per Lord Eldon, continues to represent an established principle of equitable discretion.
44. See, e.g., in the United States, Animal Legal Defense Fund Inc. v. Provimi Veal Corp., 626 F. Supp. 278 at 281 (1986).
45. Gouriet v. Union of Post Office Workers [1978] A.C. 435 at 481 per Lord Wilberforce. See also at 491, 497500, 519-521.
46. See, e.g., A.-G. v. Sharp [1930] All E.R. 741
47. A.-G. v. Harris [1961] 1 Q.B. 74.
48. Gee v. Pritchard (1818) 2 Swans. 402 at 413
49. See, e.g., A.-G. v. Chaudry [1971] 1 W.L.R. 1614.
50. As noted in J. Duns, "Enjoining Breaches of Criminal Legislation" (1990) 14 Crim.L.J. 5 at 17-19.
51. A.-G. v. Mercantile Investments Ltd (1920) 21 S.R. (N.S.W.) 183 at 187.
52. A.-G. v. Twelfth Night Theatre [1969] Qd.R. 319.
53. Commonwealth of Australia v. John Fairfax & Sons Ltd (1980) 147 C.L.R. 39.
54. K. v. T. [1983] 1 Qd.R. 396
55. A.-G. (ex rel. Kerr) v. T. [1983] 1 Qd.R. 404.
56. See also A.-G. (Qld) (ex rel. Kerr) v. T. (1983) 57 A.L.J.R. 285.
57. Commonwealth of Australia v. John Fairfax & Sons Ltd (1980) 147 C.L.R. 39 at 49-50 per Mason J.
58. Gouriet v. Union of Post Office Workers [1978] A.C. 435 at 481.
59. Gouriet v. Union of Post Office Workers [1978] A.C. at 493.
60. Gouriet v. Union of Post Office Workers [1978] A.C. at 489.
61. See further, Central Queensland Speleological Society Inc. v. Central Queensland Cement Pty Ltd (No. 1) [1989] 2 Qd.R. 512 (esp. at 524-525).
62. J. Duns, "Enjoining Breaches of Criminal Legislation" (1990) 14 Crim.L.J. 5. Duns provides a recent and useful discussion of the law in this area.
63. Boyce v. Paddington Borough Council [1903] 1 Ch.109 at 144.
64. Australian Conservation Foundation v. Commonwealth (1980) 146 C.L.R. 493 at 527
65. Gibbs J., adopted in Ingram v. Commonwealth (1980) 54 A.L.J.R. 395
66. Day v. Pinglen (1981) 148 C.L.R. 289
67. Wacando v. Commonwealth (1981) 148 C.L.R. 26.
68. See generally, G. Bates, Environmental Law in Australia (2nd ed., 1986), Ch. 11
69. P. D. Lane, "Standing to Sue for a Declaration and Injunction in the Public Interest" (1988) 18 Queensland Law Society Journal 115
70. T. Longwill, "Standing in Environmental Suits" (1987) 3 Queensland Institute of Technology Law Journal 77
71. B. Preston, Environmental Litigation (The Law Book Co. Ltd, 1989), Ch. 3.
72. Onus v. Alcoa of Australia Ltd (1981) 149 C.L.R. 27 at 42 per Stephen J.
73. Onus v. Alcoa of Australia Ltd (1981) 149 C.L.R. 27 at 42 per Stephen J.
74. An Aboriginal cultural interest was recognised in theA.C.F. case (1980) 146 C.L.R. 493
75. and a spiritual interest was recognised in Ogle v. Strickland (1987) 13 F.C.R. 306.
76. A.C.F. case (1980) 146 C.L.R. 493 at 547
77. Mason J. Current community perceptions and values must be taken into account: Australian Conservation Foundation v. Minister for Resources (1989) 19 A.L.D. 70 at 74
78. Davies J. See further, Central Queensland Speleological Society Inc. v. Central Queensland Cement Pty Ltd (No. 1) [1989] 2 Qd.R. 512.
79. Davis v. Commonwealth (1986) 61 A.L.J.R. 32 at 36
80. 68 A.L.R. 18 at 24.
81. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 (N.S.W.), s. 4
82. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986 (Vic.), s. 18(l)(b)(ii)
83. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1985 (S.A.), s. 3
84. The Animals Protection Act of 1925 (Qld), s. 3
85. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1920 (W.A.), s. 3
86. Cruelty to Animals Protection Act 1925 (Tas.), s. 3.
87. Under s. 19(1) of the Town and Country Planning Act 1961 (Vic.) (now repealed and replaced by the Planning and Environment Act 1987 (Vic.), the Full Court of the Supreme Court of Victoria held that the National Trust of Australia (Vic.) was "a person who being an objector feels aggrieved" where it had been accorded statutory recognition with respect to interests that it was furthering by its objection.
88. See further, Conservation Council of Victoria v. Western Port Regional Planning Authority (1981) 2 A.P.A. 119 at 122-123.
89. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 (N.S.W.), s. 25
90. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986 (Vic.), ss 18(l)(b)(ii), 21
91. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1985 (S.A.), s. 29
92. The Animals Protection Act of 1925 (Qld), s. 9
93. Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1920 (W.A.), s. 8
94. Cruelty to Animals Protection Act 1925 (Tas.), s. 7.
95. 237 A. 2d 342 (1968).
96. 237 A. 2d 349 (1968).
97. 237 A. 2d 349 (1968).
98. Of course, the Society could be specifically authorised by the statute to prosecute violations of its provisions: Humane Society of Rochester & Monroe County Inc. v. Lyng, 633 F. Supp. 480 (1986).
99. See also, Animal Welfare Institute v. Kreps, 561 F. 2d 1002(1977)
100. cert, denied 434 U.S. 1013 (1978)
101. Committee for Humane Legislation v. Richardson, 540 F. 2d 1141 (1976)
102. Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill, 437 U.S. 153 (1978).
103. Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill, 437 U.S. 153 (1978).
104. Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill, 437 U.S. 352 (1978).
105. 1988 (4) S.A. 42.
106. 1988 (4) S.A. 47.
107. 1988 (4) S.A. 47.
108. Walz v. Baum, 345 N.Y. Supp. 2d 159 (1973)
109. Jones v. Beame, 380 N.E. 2d 277 (1978)
110. Peninsula Humane Society v. Walters (U.S. Dist. Ct, N.D. C.A., 1984)
111. Buddhists Concerned for Animals v. USDA (U.S. Dist. Ct, N.D. C.A., 1985)
112. International Primate Protection League v. Institute for Behavioral Research, Inc., 799 F. 2d 934 (1986), reh'g denied 7 Oct. 1986, cert, denied 107 S. Ct 1624 (1987)
113. discussed in M. Messett, "They Asked for Protection and They Got Policy: International Primate's Mutilated Monkeys" (1987) 21 Akron Law Review 97
114. International Primate Protection League v. Administrators of the Tulane Educational Fund, 895 F. 2d 1056 (5th Cir., 1990), rehearing denied 13 April 1990
115. Sanders v. Hackett (Court App., Tenn., 1986)
116. noted in Animal Law Report, Mar. 1987 at 9.
117. On endangered species issues, see National Audobon Society v. Johnson, 317 F. Supp. 1330 (1970)
118. Animal Lovers Volunteer Association Inc. v. Weinberger, 765 F. 2d 937 (1985)
119. cf. National Wildlife Federation v. Burford, 385 F. 2d 305 (1987)
120. Humane Society of the United States v. Hodel, 840 F. 2d 45 (1988).
121. See further, Animal Legal Defense Fund Inc. v. Department of Environmental Conservation, (N.Y. Sup. Ct., Rockland City, Index #6670/1985)
122. noted in Animal Law Report, June 1986, at p. 7.
123. See generally, D. Hoch, "Business Ethics, Law, and the Corporate Use of Laboratory Animals" (1987) 21(2) Akron Law Review 201
124. K. McDonald, "Creating a Private Cause of Action Against Abusive Animal Research" (1986) 134 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 399
125. A. Dichter, "Legal Definitions of Cruelty and Animal Rights" (1978) 7 Environmental Affairs 147
126. S. Burr, "Towards Legal Rights for Animals" (1975) 4 Environmental A ffairs 205.
127. See, e.g., Sierra Club v. Morton, 405 U.S. 727, 31 L. Ed. 2d 636, 92 S. Ct 1361 (1972)
128. U.S. v. S.C.R.A.P., 412 U.S. 669, 37 L. Ed. 2d 254, 93 S. Ct 2405 (1973).
129. See generally, G. Bates, Environmental Law in Australia, at 285 et seq.
130. J. Doyle, "Federal Rule 24: Defining Interest for the Purposes of Intervention of Right by an Environmental Organization" (1987) 22 Valparaiso University Law Review 109.
131. Boryszewski v. Brydges, 37 N.Y. 2d 361 at 363 (1975).
132. 380 N.E. 2d 277 (1978).
133. 380 N.E. 2d 279 (1978).
134. 380 N.E. 2d 280 (1978).
135. Discussed in the context of animal welfare in K. McDonald, "Creating a Private Cause of Action Against Abusive Animal Research" (1986) 134 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 399 at 426 et seq.
136. A. Chayes, "The Role of the Judge in Public Law Litigation" (1976) 89 Harvard Law Review 1281 at 1285
137. cf. A. Chayes, "Foreword: Public Law Litigation and the Burger Court" (1982) 96 Harvard Law Review 4.
138. cf. A. Chayes, "Foreword: Public Law Litigation and the Burger Court" (1982) 96 Harvard Law Review 1294-1295.
139. Jersey Shore Medical Center-Fitkin Hospital v. Estate of Baum, 417 A. 2d 1003 at 1006 (1980).
140. It is "for the courts to decide actual controversies between parties, not academic or hypothetical questions": Robinson v. Western Australian Museum (1977) 138 C.L.R. 283 at 327
141. recently referred to in Administrative and Clerical Officers Association v. Conn (1988) 52 N.T.R. 57 at 64 per Kearney J.
142. Parker v. Lowry, 446 S.W. 2d 593 at 595-596 (1969).
143. Animal Welfare Institute v. Kreps, 561 F. 2d 1002 at 1007 (1977) (dicta), cert, denied, 434 U.S. 1013 (1978).
144. 765 F. 2d 937 (1979).
145. 799 F. 2d 934 at 938 (1986).
146. See further, A. Camille Holton, "International Primate Protection League v. Institute for Behavioral Research: The Standing of Animal Protection Organizations under the Animal Welfare Act" (1988) 4 Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy 469-478.
147. 765 F. 2d 937 at 939 (1979).
148. Berg v. Gunn (California Superior Court, County of San Mateo, 1981), the Court dismissing the cause of action brought by a dog. Nor does a dog have legal status to sue in a U.S. Federal Court: Feinstock v. U.S. Air (New York District Court, 6 January 1987), noted in The National Law Journal, 26 January 1987, at p. 47.
149. Moreover, on the non-relationship of legal rights and injunctive relief to prevent breaches of the criminal law, see B. Hough, "Judicial Review where the Attorney General Refuses to Act: Time for a Change" (1988) 8 Legal Studies 189.
150. See K. McK. Norrie, "Trusts for Animals" (1987) 32 Journal of the Law Society of Scotland 386
151. See K. McK. Norrie, "Trusts for Animals" (1987) 32 Journal of the Law Society of Scotland 386
152. An analysis of these terms in the context of the animal cruelty legislation appears in P. Jamieson, "Animals" in Halsbury's Laws of Australia (Sydney, Butterworths, 1991), Vol. 1, at [20-530]-[20-560].
153. Greenwood v. Backhouse (1902) 86 L.T. 566
154. Hooker v. Gray (1907) 96 L.T. 706
155. Potter v. Challans (1910) 102 L.T. 325
156. Tucker v. Hazelhurst (1907) 26 N.Z.L.R. 263
157. Seed v. Sommerville (1909) 4 M.C.R. 20.
158. Trenchard v. Ryan (1910) 10 S.R. (N.S.W.) 618; Ex parte Laidlaw; Re Coope (1935) 52 W.N. (N.S.W.) 184; William Holyman & Sons Pty Ltd v. Eyles [1947] Tas. S.R. 11; Victorian Railways Board v. Snowball [1983] 1 V.R. 689, Netherway v. R.S.P.C.A. (Unreported, S.C. of W.A., No. 1096 of 1988, 22 December 1988). See further, P. Jamieson, "Animals" in Halsbury's Laws of Australia (Sydney, Butterworths, 1991), Vol. 1, at [20-525]; "A Question of Criminal Guilt-Mens Rea under Animal Protection Law" (1988) 15 U.Q.L.J. 75. Even where words apparently importing a particular mental element such as cause or permit have been used in pollution legislation, these have also been held to create offences of stria liability in view of the social and environmental detriment of pollution. This issue is discussed in G. M. Bates, Environmental Law in Australia (2nd ed., Butterworths, 1986), at p. 245 et seq. See, e.g., Allen v. United Carpet Mill Pty Ltd[1989] V.R. 323.
159. Ex parte Laidlaw; Re Coope (1935) 52 W.N. (N.S.W.) 184
160. William Holyman & Sons Pty Ltd v. Eyles [1947] Tas. S.R. 11
161. Victorian Railways Board v. Snowball [1983] 1 V.R. 689
162. Netherway v. R.S.P.C.A. (Unreported, S.C. of W.A., No. 1096 of 1988, 22 December 1988).
163. See further, P. Jamieson, "Animals" in Halsbury's Laws of Australia (Sydney, Butterworths, 1991), Vol. 1, at [20-525]
164. "A Question of Criminal Guilt-Mens Rea under Animal Protection Law" (1988) 15 U.Q.L.J. 75.
165. Even where words apparently importing a particular mental element such as cause or permit have been used in pollution legislation, these have also been held to create offences of stria liability in view of the social and environmental detriment of pollution. This issue is discussed in G. M. Bates, Environmental Law in Australia (2nd ed., Butterworths, 1986), at p. 245 et seq.
166. See, e.g., Allen v. United Carpet Mill Pty Ltd[1989] V.R. 323.
167. Collett v. Bennett (1986) 3 M.V.R. 141 at 145.
168. A. Dichter, "Legal Definitions of Cruelty to Animals" (1978) 7 Environmental Affairs 147 at 151 et seq.
169. A. Dichter, "Legal Definitions of Cruelty to Animals" (1978) 7 Environmental Affairs at 157 et seq.
170. Re Astor's Settlement Trusts [1952] 1 All E.R. 1067
171. Re Producers' Defence Fund [1954] V.L.R. 246 at 255
172. Lindsay's Executor v. Forsyth [1940] S.C. 568 at 571-572.
173. Cruelty to Animals Protection Act 1925 (Tas.), s. 13.
174. In State v. Hudson, 470 A. 2d 786 (1984), the humane society was itself considered the "victim" and entitled to restitution, having incurred expenses in caring for the mistreated animal.
175. Re Thompson [1934] Ch. 342.
176. Discussion of these cases appears in, for example, H. Lipsig, "Pet Owner's Damages for Emotional Distress" N.Y.L.J., 23 Oct. 1981, 186, no. 80 at 1-2
177. H. Hannah, "Pet Owners and Punitive Damages" (1981) 179 J.A.V.M.A. 224
178. M. Lindensmith, "How Much is that Doggy in the Window?" (1982) 18 Trial 49
179. V. McCarthy, "The Changing Concept of Animals as Property" (1982) 3 International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 295
180. D. Allen, "The Rights of Nonhuman Animals and World Public Order: A Global Assessment" (1983) 28 New York Law School Review 377.
181. Infante v. Leith, 85 P.R.R. 24 (1962)
182. Brown v. Crocker, 139 So. 2d 779 (1962)
183. City of Garland v. White, 368 S.W. 2d 12 (Tex. Civ. App. 1963)
184. Freeden v. Stride, 525 P. 2d 166 (Oregon 1974)
185. Knowles Animal Hospital Inc. v. Wills, 360 So. 2d 37 (Fla. App. 1978)
186. Corso v. Crawford Dog and Cat Hospital Inc., 97 Misc. 2d 530 (1979)
187. Peloquin v. Calcasaieu Parish Police Jury, 367 So. 2d 1246 (N.Y. Civ. Ct 1979)
188. Campbellv. Animal Quarantine Station, 632 P. 2d 1066 (Hawaii, 1981)
189. McDermott v. Sail, N.Y.L.J., 9 Dec. 1985 (Civ. Ct, Bronx County).
190. See further U.S. v. Hatahley, 257 F. 2d 920 at 925 (1958) (U.S. Court of Appeals Tenth Circuit did not specifically condone the recovery of mental pain and suffering, but nor did it state a blanket rule that such damages were not recoverable)
191. Animal Hospital of Elmont v. Gianfrancisco, 418 N.Y. Supp. 2d 992 at 994 (1979) ("the length of time the puppy had been living with the defendant" is a factor in the assessment of damages)
192. Katsaris v. Cook, Daily Appellate Report, 8 May 1986, 86 Daily Jnl D.A.R. 1456, Cal. C. of A. (emotional distress claim remanded to the trial court for its further consideration).
193. See though, Cummings v. Nye (Circuit Ct, Cook County, 111. 1985; 111. Appellate Ct., First Dist., Third Div. 1985).
194. No such recovery has been allowed in Julian v. De Vincent, 184 S.E. 2d 535 (1971)
195. Stettner v. Graubard, 368 N.Y.S. 2d 683 (1975)
196. Berg v. Gunn (California Superior Court, County of San Mateo, 1981).
197. See further, Wertman v. Tipping, 166 So. 2d 666 (1964);
198. Davis v. Gray (Ct of Appeals, MD, 1988).
199. This latter point is noted in Feinstock v. U.S. Air (New York District Court, 6 January 1987), noted in The National Law Journal, 26 January 1987, at 47.
200. Corso v. Crawford Dog and Cat Hospital Inc., 97 Misc. 2d 530 at 531 (1979).
201. La Porte v. Associated Independents Inc., 163 So. 2d 267 at 269 (Fla. 1964).
202. Infante v. Leith, 85 P.R.R. 24 at 37 (1962).
203. See further, Paul v. Osceloa County, 388 So. 2d 40 (Fla. App. 1980).
204. La Porte v. Associated Independents Inc., 163 So. 2d 267 (Fla. 1964)
205. Knowles Animal Hospital Inc. v. Wills, 360 So. 2d 37 (Fla. App. 1978)
206. Banasczek v. Kowalski, 10 D. &C. 3d Penn. Dist. & County Reps 94 (1979)
207. Cole v. Creamer (U.S. Dist. Ct., Dist. of Maine), noted in Animal Rights Law Reporter, January 1980, at p. 2
208. Gill v. Brown, 694 P. 2d 1276 (1985)
209. Richardson v. Fairbanks North Star Borough, 705 P. 2d 454 (1985).
210. Banasczek v. Kowalski, 10 D. &C. 3d Penn. Dist. & County Reps 94 (1979).
211. Parker v. Mise (Alabama Supreme Ct, 1855)
212. referred to in H. Hannah, "Pet Owners and Punitive Damages" (1981) 179 J.A.V.M.A. 224
213. La Porte v. Associated Independents Inc., 163 So. 2d 267 (Fla. 1964)
214. Knowles Animal Hospital Inc. v. Wills, 360 So. 2d 37 (Fla. App. 1978)
215. Wilson v. City of Egan, 297 N.W. 2d 146 (1980).
216. V. McCarthy, "The Changing Concept of Animals as Property" (1982) 3 International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 295 at 297.
217. Noted in Richardson v. Fairbanks North Star Borough, 705 P. 2d 454 at 456 (Ala. 1985).
218. Jankoski v. Preiser Animal Hospital, 510 N.E. 2d 1084 at 1087 (111. App., 1 Dist. 1987), appeal denied 517 N.E. 2d 1086 (1987).
219. Jankoski v. Preiser Animal Hospital, 510 N.E. 2d 1084 at 1087 (111. App., 1 Dist. 1987), appeal denied 517 N.E. 2d 1086 (1987).
220. referring to Brousseau v. Rosenthal, 443 N.Y. Supp. 2d 285 at 286 (1980).
221. Borza v. Banner (1975) 60 D.L.R. (3d) 304.
222. (1976) 74 D.L.R. (3d) 574.
223. On regulation of air transportation generally, see M. Daniell, "Air Transportation of Animals: Passengers or Property" (1986) 51 Journal of Air Law and Commerce 497.
224. F. Dawson, "General Damages in Contract" (1983) 10 New Zealand Law Review 232 at 253 et seq.
225. F. Dawson, "General Damages in Contract" (1983) 10 New Zealand Law Review at 253 et seq.
226. D. Allen, "The Rights of Nonhuman Animals and World Public Order: A Global Assessment" (1983) 28 New York Law School Review 377 at 423.
227. See also, V. McCarthy, at 298. A dog has been ruled to be, in effect, a "child substitute" in divorce proceedings to be jointly shared by the divorcing couple: Animal Rights Law Reporter, Oct. 1983, at p. 2.
228. In divorce proceedings (in Texas) a wife has been named "managing conservator" of the couple's dog, although the office was intended only to apply to human children: Animal Rights Law Reporter, July 1981, at p. 3.
229. J. G. Fleming, The Law of Torts (7th ed., The Law Book Co. Ltd, 1987), at p. 227
230. cf. Davies v. Bennison (1927) 22 Tas.L.R. 52.
231. Gabolinscy v. Hamilton City Corporation [1975] 1 N.Z.L.R. 150
232. Youngv. Tomlinson [1979] 2 N.S.W.L.R. 441 at 462
233. Perry v. Sidney Phillips & Son [1982] 1 W.L.R. 1297
234. Brickhill v. Cooke [1984] 3 N.S.W.L.R. 396
235. Clarke v. Shire of Gisborne [1984] V.R. 971.
236. R.A. & T.J. Carll Ltd v. Berry [1981] 2 N.Z.L.R. 76.
237. Though H. Salt, "The Rights of Animals" (1899-1900) 10 Ethics 206 at 213 considered that animal cruelty legislation did accord animals legal rights.
238. See further, S. Clark, The Moral Status of Animals (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1977), at pp. 11-13.
239. People v. Fimbres, 288 P. 19 at 20 (1930).
240. In re Ackerman, 91 P. 429 at 433 (1907).
241. T. Dowley (ed.), Taking Off: An Anthology of Parodies, Send-Ups and Imitations (London, Methuen, 1984), at pp. 129-131.
242. 405 U.S. 727 at 742 (1972).
243. See further, Blackmun J. at 758 (Brennan J. agreeing with his reasoning).
244. See further, R. Hanula and P. Hill, "Using Metaright Theory to Ascribe Kantian Rights to Animals Within Nozick's Minimal State" (1977) 19 Arizona Law Review 242 at 267
245. cf. Law Reform Commission Australia: Report No. 27 (1985), Standing in the Public Interest, pp. 127-128.
246. See further, C. Morris, "The Rights and Duties of Beasts and Trees: A Law Teacher's Essay for Landscape Artists" [1964] Journal of Legal Education 185 at 189.