Physiology and Ecology of Host Defense Against Microbial Invaders

Insect Pathology, Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 461-480

  Lundgren, Jonathan G ^a   Jurat Fuentes, Juan Luis ^b  

^a AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84882916845     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-384984-7.00013-0     Document Type: Chapter

References (167)

1. C.A. Abel and J.J. Adamczyk Jr. (2004) Relative concentration of Cry1A in maize leaves and cotton bolls with diverse chlorophyll content and corresponding larval development of fall armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and southwestern corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) on maize whorl leaf profiles. J. Econ. Entomol. 97 1737-1744.
2. S.A. Adamo (1998) The specificity of behavioral fever in the cricket Acheta domesticus. J. Parasitol. 84 529-533.
3. C.R. Alma, D.R. Gillespie, B.D. Roitberg and M.S. Goettel (2010) Threat of infection and threat-avoidance behavior in the predator Dicyphus hesperus feeding on whitefly nymphs infected with an entomopathogen. J. Insect Behav. 23 90-99.
4. A. Alyokhin (2011) Scant evidence supports EPA's pyramided Bt corn refuge size of 5%. Nat. Biotechnol. 29 577-578.
5. A. Amano, I. Nakagawa and T. Yoshimori (2006) Autophagy in innate immunity against intracellular bacteria. J. Biochem. 140 161-166.
6. L.B. Amorim, R.A. de Barros, K.D. de Melo Chalegre, C.M.F. de Oliveira, L.N. Regis and M.H.N. Lobo Silva-Filha (2010) Stability of Culex quinquefasciatus resistance to Bacillus sphaericus evaluated by molecular tools. Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 40 311-316.
7. D.A. Andow and A.R. Ives (2002) Monitoring and adaptive resistance management. Ecol. Appl. 12 1378-1390.
8. S.A.O. Armitage and J.J. Boomsma (2010) The effects of age and social interactions on innate immunity in a leaf-cutting ant. J. Insect Physiol. 56 780-787.
9. A. Arnold and L.C. Lewis (2005) Ecology and evolution of fungal endophytes and their roles against insects. F.E. Vega, M. Blackwell (Eds) Insect–Fungal Associations: Ecology and Evolution Oxford: Oxford University Press 74-96.
10. L.A. Baton, L. Garver, Z. Xi and G. Dimopoulos (2008) Functional genomics studies on the innate immunity of disease vectors. Insect Sci. 15 15-27.
11. S.W. Baxter, J.Z. Zhao, L.J. Gahan, A.M. Shelton, B.E. Tabashnik and D.G. Heckel (2005) Novel genetic basis of field-evolved resistance to Bt toxins in Plutella xylostella. Insect Mol. Biol. 14 327-334.
12. N.E. Beckage (2007) Insect Immunology. San Diego: Academic Press
13. C.C. Beegle, L.C. Lewis, R.E. Lynch and A.J. Martinez (1981) Interaction of larval age and antibiotic on the susceptibility of 3 insect species to Bacillus thuringiensis. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 37 143-153.
14. M. Berdegué, J.T. Trumble and W.J. Moar (1996) Effect of CryIC toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis on larval feeding behavior of Spodoptera exigua. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 80 389-401.
15. M.I. Boguś, M. Czygier, M. Gołębiowski, E. Kędra, J. Kucińska, J. Mazgajska, J. Samborski, W. Wieloch and E. Włóka (2010) Effects of insect cuticular fatty acids on in vitro growth and pathogenicity of the entomopathogenic fungus Conidiobolus coronatus. Exp. Parasitol. 125 400-408.
16. M. Boots (1998) Cannibalism and the stage-dependent transmission of a viral pathogen of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella. Ecol. Entomol. 23 118-122.
17. D. Bourguet, M. Desquilbet and S. Lemarié (2005) Regulating insect resistance management: the case of non-Bt corn refuges in the US. J. Environ. Manag. 76 210-220.
18. K. Bourtzis, M.M. Pettigrew and S.L. O'Neill (2000) Wolbachia neither induces nor suppresses transcripts encoding antimicrobial peptides. Insect Mol. Biol. 9 635-639.
19. C.A. Brennan and K.V. Anderson (2004) Drosophila: the genetics of innate immune recognition and response. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 22 457-483.
20. L.J. Brennan, B.A. Keddie, H.R. Braig and H.L. Harris (2008) The endosymbiont Wolbachia pipientis induces the expression of host antioxidant proteins in an Aedes albopictus cell line. PLoS ONE 3 e2083.
21. P. Bulet, C. Hetru, J.-L. Dimarcq and D. Hoffmann (1999) Antimicrobial peptides in insects; structure and function. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 23 329-344.
22. M.A. Caprio (1994) Bacillus thuringiensis gene deployment and resistance management in single- and multi-tactic environments. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 4 487-497.
23. Y. Carrière, K.C. Ellers, A.L. Patin, M.A. Sims, S. Meyer, Y.B. Liu, T.J. Dennehy and B.E. Tabashnik (2001) Overwintering cost associated with resistance to transgenic cotton in the pink bollworm (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 94 935-941.
24. Y. Carrière, D.W. Crowder and B.E. Tabashnik (2010) Evolutionary ecology of insect adaptation to Bt crops. Evol. Appl. 3 561-573.
25. Y. Carton, M. Poirié and A.J. Nappi (2008) Insect immune resistance to parasitoids. Insect Sci. 15 67-87.
26. M. Centofanti (1995) Playing by the rules. How and why organisms turn nasty. Sci. News 148 382-383.
27. R.F. Chapman (1998) The Insects: Structure and Function. 4th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
28. J.-F. Charles, C. Nielsen-LeRoux and A. Delécluse (1996) Bacillus sphaericus toxins: molecular biology and mode of action. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 41 451-472.
29. K. Chen, Z.-H. Weng and L. Zheng (2008) Innate immunity against malaria parasites in Anopheles gambiae. Insect Sci. 15 45-52.
30. A.S. Chiang, D.F. Yen and W.K. Peng (1986) Defense reaction of midgut epithelial cells in the rice moth larva (Corcyra cephalonica) infected with Bacillus thuringiensis. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 47 333-339.
31. T. Chouvenc, N.-Y. Su and A. Robert (2010) Inhibition of the fungal pathogen Metarhizium anisopliae in the alimentary tracts of five termite (Isoptera) species. Fla. Entomol. 93 467-469.
32. B.M. Christensen, J. Li, C.-C. Chen and A.J. Nappi (2005) Melanization immune responses in mosquito vectors. Trends Parasitol. 21 192-199.
33. K. Clay and C. Schardl (2002) Evolutionary origins and ecological consequences of endophyte symbioses with grasses. Am. Nat. 160 S99-S127.
34. J.S. Cory and K. Hoover (2006) Plant-mediated effects in insect–pathogen interactions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21 278-286.
35. S. Cremer, S.A. Armitage and P. Schmid-Hempel (2007) Social immunity. Curr. Biol. 17 R693-R702.
36. I. Darboux, Y. Pauchet, C. Castella, M.H. Silva-Filha, C. Nielsen-LeRoux, J.-F. Charles and D. Pauron (2002) Loss of the membrane anchor of the target receptor is a mechanism of bioinsecticide resistance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99 5830-5835.
37. I. Darboux, J.-F. Charles, Y. Pauchet, S. Warot and D. Pauron (2007) Transposon-mediated resistance to Bacillus sphaericus in a field-evolved population of Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae). Cell. Microbiol. 9 2022-2029.
38. R.J. Dillon and V.M. Dillon (2004) The gut bacteria of insects: nonpathogenic interactions. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 49 71-92.
39. P.S. Duetting, H. Ding, J. Neufeld and S.D. Eigenbrode (2003) Plant waxy bloom on peas affects infection of pea aphids by Pandora neoaphidis. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 84 149-158.
40. H.T. Dulmage and E. Martinez (1973) The effects of continuous exposure to low concentrations of the δ endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis on the development of the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 22 14-22.
41. H.T. Dulmage, H.M. Graham and E. Martinez (1978) Interactions between the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens, and the δ-endotoxin produced by the HD-1 isolate of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki: relationship between length of exposure to the toxin and survival. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 32 40-50.
42. S. Ekesi, N.K. Maniania and W. Lwande (2000) Susceptibility of the legume flower thrips to Metarhizium anisopliae on different varieties of cowpea. BioControl 45 79-95.
43. I. Eleftherianos, P.J. Millichap, R.H. ffrench-Constant and S.E. Reynolds (2006) RNAi suppression of recognition protein mediated immune responses in the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta causes increased susceptibility to the insect pathogen Photorhabdus. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 30 1099-1107.
44. J.D. Evans and M. Spivak (2010) Socialized medicine: individual and communal disease barriers in honey bees. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 103 S62-S72.
45. J.D. Evans, K. Aronstein, Y.P. Chen, C. Hetru, J.-L. Imler, H. Jiang, M. Kanost, G.J. Thompson, Z. Zou and D. Hultmark (2006) Immune pathways and defence mechanisms in honey bees Apis mellifera. Insect Mol. Biol. 15 645-656.
46. P.W. Ewald (1995) The evolution of virulence: a unifying link between parasitology and ecology. J. Parasitol. 81 659-669.
47. H. Fernández-Marín, J.K. Zimmerman, S.A. Rehner and W.T. Wcislo (2006) Active use of the metapleural glands by ants in controlling fungal infection. Proc. R. Soc. B. 273 1689-1695.
48. J. Ferré and J. Van Rie (2002) Biochemistry and genetics of insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 47 501-533.
49. J. Ferré, M.D. Real, J. Van Rie, S. Jansens and M. Peferoen (1991) Resistance to the Bacillus thuringiensis bioinsecticide in a field population of Plutella xylostella is due to a change in a midgut membrane receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88 5119-5123.
50. C. Forcada, E. Alcácer, M.D. Garcerá, A. Tato and R. Martínez (1999) Resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin in three strains of Heliothis virescens: proteolytic and SEM study of the larval midgut. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 42 51-63.
51. E. Fuentes-Contreras, J.K. Pell and H.M. Niemeyer (1998) Influence of plant resistance at the third trophic level: interactions between parasitoids and entomopathogenic fungi of cereal aphids. Oecologia 117 426-432.
52. M.J. Furlong and J.K. Pell (2005) Interactions between entomopathogenic fungi and arthropod natural enemies. F.E. Vega, M. Blackwell (Eds) Insect–Fungal Associations: Ecology and Evolution Oxford: Oxford University Press 51-73.
53. J.R. Fuxa (2004) Ecology of insect nucleopolyhedroviruses. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 103 27-43.
54. J.R. Fuxa and A.R. Richter (1998) Repeated reversion of resistance to nucleopolyhedrovirus by Anticarsia gemmatalis. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 71 159-164.
55. J.R. Fuxa, J.-Z. Sun, E.H. Weidner and L.R. LaMotte (1999) Stressors and rearing diseases of Trichoplusia ni: evidence of vertical transmission of NPV and CPV. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 74 149-155.
56. A. Fytrou, P.G. Schofield, A.R. Kraaijeveld and S.F. Hubbard (2006) Wolbachia infection suppresses both host defence and parasitoid counter-defence. Proc. R. Soc. B. 273 791-796.
57. L.J. Gahan, F. Gould and D.G. Heckel (2001) Identification of a gene associated with Bt resistance in Heliothis virescens. Science 293 857-860.
58. L.J. Gahan, F. Gould, J.D. López Jr., S. Micinski and D.G. Heckel (2007) A polymerase chain reaction screen of field populations of Heliothis virescens for a retrotransposon insertion conferring resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin. J. Econ. Entomol. 100 187-194.
59. L.J. Gahan, Y. Pauchet, H. Vogel and D.G. Heckel (2010) An ABC transporter mutation is correlated with insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin. PLoS Genet 6 e1001248.
60. A.J. Gassmann, Y. Carrière and B.E. Tabashnik (2009) Fitness costs of insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 54 147-163.
61. A.J. Gassmann, D.W. Onstad and B.R. Pittendrigh (2009) Evolutionary analysis of herbivorous insects in natural and agricultural environments. Pest Manag. Sci. 65 1174-1181.
62. S. Goto, H. Anbutsu and T. Fukatsu (2006) Asymmetrical interactions between Wolbachia and Spiroplasma endosymbionts coexisting in the same insect host. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72 4805-4810.
63. F. Gould (1988) Evolutionary biology and genetically engineered crops: consideration of evolutionary theory can aid in crop design. Bioscience 38 26-33.
64. F. Gould (1998) Sustainability of transgenic insecticidal cultivars: integrating pest genetics and ecology. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 43 701-726.
65. S. Govind (2008) Innate immunity in Drosophila: pathogens and pathways. Insect Sci. 15 29-43.
66. M.Z. Haider, B.H. Knowles and D.J. Ellar (1986) Specificity of Bacillus thuringiensis var. colmeri insecticidal δ-endotoxin is determined by differential proteolytic processing of the protoxin by larval gut proteases. Eur. J. Biochem. 156 531-540.
67. P. Hernández-Martínez, J. Ferré and B. Escriche (2009) Broad-spectrum cross-resistance in Spodoptera exigua from selection with a marginally toxic Cry protein. Pest Manag. Sci. 65 645-650.
68. E.A. Herre (1993) Population structure and the evolution of virulence in nematode parasites of fig wasps. Science 259 1442-1445.
69. S. Herrero, B. Oppert and J. Ferré (2001) Different mechanisms of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in the indianmeal moth. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67 1085-1089.
70. J.F. Hillyer and B.M. Christensen (2005) Mosquito phenoloxidase and defensin colocalize in melanization innate immune responses. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 53 689-698.
71. M.E. Hochberg (1991) Intra-host interactions between a braconid endoparasitoid, Apantales glomeratus, and a baculovirus for larvae of Pieris brassicae. J. Anim. Ecol. 60 51-63.
72. M.E. Hochberg (1991) Extra-host interactions between a braconid endoparasitoid, Apanteles glomeratus, and a baculovirus for larvae of Pieris brassicae. J. Anim. Ecol. 60 65-77.
73. J.A. Hoffmann (1995) Innate immunity of insects. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 7 4-10.
74. J.A. Hoffmann (2003) The immune response of Drosophila. Nature 426 33-38.
75. K. Hoover, M.A. Humphries, A.R. Gendron and J.M. Slavicek (2010) Impact of viral enhancin genes on potency of Lymantria dispar multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus in L. dispar following disruption of the peritrophic matrix. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 104 150-152.
76. G.L. Hughes, R. Ren, J.L. Ramirez, J.M. Sakamoto, J.A. Bailey, A.E. Jedlicka and J.L. Rasgon (2011) Wolbachia infections in Anopheles gambiae cells: transcriptomic characterization of a novel host–symbionet interaction. PLoS ONE 7 e1001296.
77. G.D.D. Hurst, H. Anbutsu, M. Kutsukake and T. Fukatsu (2003) Hidden from the host: Spiroplasma bacteria infecting Drosophila do not cause an immune response, but are suppressed by ectopic immune activation. Insect Mol. Biol. 12 93-97.
78. C.M. Ignoffo (1992) Environmental factors affecting persistence of entomopathogens. Fla. Entomol. 75 516-525.
79. A.R. Ives and D.A. Andow (2002) Evolution of resistance to Bt crops: directional selection in structured environments. Ecol. Lett. 5 792-801.
80. A.F. Janmaat, P. Wang, W. Kain, J.-Z. Zhao and J. Myers (2004) Inheritance of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki in Trichoplusia ni. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70 5859-5867.
81. S. Jaronski (2010) Ecological factors in the inundative use of fungal entomopathogens. BioControl 55 159-185.
82. H. Jiang (2008) The biochemical basis of antimicrobial responses in Manduca sexta. Insect Sci. 15 53-66.
83. J.L. Jurat-Fuentes, F.L. Gould and M.J. Adang (2003) Dual resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac and Cry2Aa toxins in Heliothis virescens suggests multiple mechanisms of resistance. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69 5898-5906.
84. J.L. Jurat-Fuentes, L.J. Gahan, F.L. Gould, D.G. Heckel and M.J. Adang (2004) The HevCaLP protein mediates binding specificity of the Cry1A class of Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in Heliothis virescens. Biochemistry 43 14299-14305.
85. M.R. Kanost and J.B. Nardi (2010) Innate immune responses of Manduca sexta. M.R. Goldsmith, F. Marec (Eds) Molecular Biology and Genetics of the Lepidoptera Boca Raton: CRC Press 271-291.
86. L. Karumbaiah, B. Oppert, J.L. Jurat-Fuentes and M.J. Adang (2007) Analysis of midgut proteinases from Bacillus thuringiensis-susceptible and -resistant Heliothis virescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 146 139-146.
87. C. Khajuria, Y.C. Zhu, M.S. Chen, L.L. Buschman, R.A. Higgins, J.X. Yao, A.L.B. Crespo, B.D. Siegfried, S. Muthukrishnan and K.Y. Zhu (2009) Expressed sequence tags from larval gut of the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis): exploring candidate genes potentially involved in Bacillus thuringiensis toxicity and resistance. BMC Genomics 10 286.
88. E. Klinger, E. Groden and F.A. Drummond (2006) Beauveria bassiana horizontal infection between cadavers and adults of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say). Environ. Entomol. 35 992-1000.
89. K.C. Kouassi, F. Lorenzetti, C. Guertin, J. Cabana and Y. Mauffette (2001) Variation in the susceptibility of the forest tent caterpillar (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) to Bacillus thuringiensis variety kurstaki HD-1: effect of the host plant. J. Econ. Entomol. 94 1135-1141.
90. M.D. Lavine and M.R. Strand (2001) Surface characteristics of foreign targets that elicit an encapsulation response by the moth Pseudoplusia includens. J. Insect Physiol. 47 965-974.
91. M.D. Lavine and M.R. Strand (2002) Insect hemocytes and their role in immunity. Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 32 1295-1309.
92. Y. Le Conte, C. Alaux, J.-F. Martin, J.R. Harbo, J.W. Harris, C. Dantec, D. Séverac, S. Cros-Arteil and M. Navajas (2011) Social immunity in honeybees (Apis mellifera): transcriptome analysis of varroa-hygienic behaviour. Insect Mol. Biol. 20 399-408.
93. M.J. Lehane (1997) Peritrophic matrix structure and function. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 42 525-550.
94. E. deLello, W.K. Hanton, S.T. Bishoff and D.W. Mish (1984) Histopathological effects of Bacillus thuringiensis on the midgut of tobacco hornworm larvae (Manduca sexta): low doses compared with fasting. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 43 169-181.
95. B. Levine (2005) Eating oneself and uninvited guests: autophagy-related pathways in cellular defense. Cell 120 159-162.
96. S.M. Levy, A.M.F. Falleiros, F. Moscardi and E.A. Gregório (2007) Susceptibility/resistance of Anticarsia gemmatalis larvae to its nucleopolyhedrovirus (AgMNPV): structural study of the peritrophic membrane. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 96 183-186.
97. M.J. Loeb, P.A. Martin, R.S. Hakim, S. Goto and M. Takeda (2001) Regeneration of cultured midgut cells after exposure to sublethal doses of toxin from two strains of Bacillus thuringiensis. J. Insect Physiol. 47 599-606.
98. J.C. Lord (2001) Response of the wasp Cephalonomia tarsalis (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) to Beauveria bassiana (Hyphomycetes: Moniliales) as free conidia or infection in its host, the sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Coleoptera: Silvanidae). Biol. Control 21 300-304.
99. O. Loseva, M. Ibrahim, M. Candas, C.N. Koller, L.S. Bauer and L.A. Bulla Jr. (2002) Changes in protease activity and Cry3Aa toxin binding in the Colorado potato beetle: implications for insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins. Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 32 567-577.
100. J.G. Lundgren (2009) Relationships of Natural Enemies and Non-prey Foods. Dordrecht: Springer International
101. J.G. Lundgren and R.M. Lehman (2010) Bacterial gut symbionts contribute to seed digestion in an omnivorous beetle. PLoS ONE 5 e10831.
102. A.C. Martínez-Ramírez, F. Gould and J. Ferré (1999) Histopathological effects and growth reduction in a susceptible and a resistant strain of Heliothis virescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) caused by sublethal doses of pure Cry1A crystal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis. Biocontrol Sci. Technol. 9 239-246.
103. D.M. Mburu, L. Ochola, N.K. Maniania, P.G.N. Njagi, L.M. Gitonga, M.W. Ndung'u, A.K. Wanjoya and A. Hassanali (2009) Relationship between virulence and repellency of entomopathogenic isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana to the termite Macrotermes michaelseni. J. Insect Physiol. 55 774-780.
104. W.H. McGaughey (1985) Insect resistance to the biological insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis. Science 229 193-195.
105. E.A. McGraw and S.L. O'Neill (2004) Wolbachia pipientis: intracellular infection and pathogenesis in Drosophila. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 7 67-70.
106. L.N. Meihls, M.L. Higdon, B.D. Siegfried, N.J. Miller, T.W. Sappington, M.R. Ellersieck, T.A. Spencer and B.E. Hibbard (2008) Increased survival of western corn rootworm on transgenic corn within three generations of onplant greenhouse selection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105 19177-19182.
107. M. Mendelsohn, J. Kough, Z. Vaituzis and K. Matthews (2003) Are Bt crops safe? Nat. Biotechnol. 21 1003-1009.
108. N.V. Meyling and J.K. Pell (2006) Detection and avoidance of an entomopathogenic fungus by a generalist insect predator. Ecol. Entomol. 31 162-171.
109. M.L. Milks and J.H. Myers (2000) The development of larval resistance to a nucleopolyhedrovirus is not accompanied by an increased virulence in the virus. Evol. Ecol. 14 645-664.
110. M.L. Milks, M.K. Lepitch and D.A. Theilmann (2001) Recombinant and wild-type nucleopolyhedroviruses are equally fit in mixed infections. Environ. Entomol. 30 972-981.
111. M.L. Milks, J.H. Myers and M.K. Leptich (2002) Costs and stability of cabbage looper resistance to a nucleopolyhedrovirus. Evol. Ecol. 16 369-385.
112. W. Mitsuhashi, H. Kawakita, R. Murakami, Y. Takemoto, T. Saiki, K. Miyamoto and S. Wada (2007) Spindles of an entomopoxvirus facilitate its infection of the host insect by disrupting the peritrophic membrane. J. Virol. 81 4235-4243.
113. S. Morin, R.W. Biggs, M.S. Sisterson, L. Shriver, C. Ellers-Kirk, D. Higginson, D. Holley, L.J. Gahan, D.G. Heckel, Y. Carrière, T.J. Dennehy, J.K. Brown and B.E. Tabashnik (2003) Three cadherin alleles associated with resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in pink bollworm. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100 5004-5009.
114. B. Moussain (2010) Recent advances in understanding mechanisms of insect cuticle differentiation. Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 40 363-375.
115. NASS (2011) National Agriculture Statistics Service. USDA http://www.nass.usda.gov/
116. C. Nielsen-Leroux, F. Pasquier, J.F. Charles, G. Sinegre, B. Gaven and N. Pasteur (1997) Resistance to Bacillus sphaericus involves different mechanisms in Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae. J. Med. Entomol. 34 321-327.
117. C. Nielsen-Leroux, N. Pasteur, J. Pretre, J.F. Charles, H.B. Sheikh and C. Chevillon (2002) High resistance to Bacillus sphaericus binary toxin in Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae): the complex situation of west Mediterranean countries. J. Med. Entomol. 39 729-735.
118. C.M.F. de Oliveira, F. Costa Filho, J.F.N. Beltràn, M.H. Silva-Filha and L. Regis (2003) Biological fitness of a Culex quinquefasciatus population and its resistance to Bacillus sphaericus. J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc. 19 125-129.
119. K.M. Olsen, J.C. Daly, H.E. Holt and E.J. Finnegan (2005) Season-long variation in expression of Cry1Ac gene and efficacy of Bacillus thuringiensis toxin in transgenic cotton against Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 98 1007-1017.
120. D.W. Onstad and L.J. Meinke (2010) Modeling evolution of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) to transgenic corn with two insecticidal traits. J. Econ. Entomol. 103 849-860.
121. D.W. Onstad, P.D. Mitchell, T.M. Hurley, J.G. Lundgren, R.P. Porter, C.H. Krupke, J.L. Spencer, C.D. DiFonzo, T.S. Baute, R.L. Hellmich, L.L. Buschmann, W.D. Hutchison and J.F. Tooker (2011) Seeds of change: corn seed mixtures for resistance management and IPM. J. Econ. Entomol. 104 343-352.
122. B. Oppert, K.J. Kramer, R.W. Beeman, D. Johnson and W.H. McGaughey (1997) Proteinase-mediated insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins. J. Biol. Chem. 272 23473-23476.
123. E.L. Ormond, A.P.M. Thomas, J.K. Pell, S.N. Freeman and H.E. Roy (2011) Avoidance of a generalist entomopathogenic fungus by the ladybird, Coccinella septempunctata. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 77 229-237.
124. P.R. Oxley, M. Spivak and B.P. Oldroyd (2010) Six quantitative trait loci influence task thresholds for hygienic behaviour in honeybees (Apis mellifera). Mol. Ecol. 19 1452-1461.
125. H.W. Park, D.K. Bideshi and B.A. Federici (2010) Properties and applied use of the mosquitocidal bacterium, Bacillus sphaericus. J. Asia Pac. Entomol. 13 159-168.
126. B.J. Parker, B.D. Elderd and G. Dwyer (2010) Host behaviour and exposure risk in an insect–pathogen interaction. J. Anim. Ecol. 79 863-870.
127. A.L. Passarelli (2011) Barriers to success: how baculoviruses establish efficient systemic infections. Virology 411 383-392.
128. G.C. Piubelli, C.B. Hoffmann-Campo, F. Moscardi, S.H. Miyakubo and M.C.N. de Oliveira (2006) Baculovirus-resistant Anticarsia gemmatalis responds differently to dietary rutin. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 119 53-60.
129. R. Plymale, M.J. Grove, D. Cox-Foster, N. Ostiguy and K. Hoover (2008) Plant-mediated alteration of the peritrophic matrix and baculovirus infection in lepidopteran larvae. J. Insect Physiol. 54 737-749.
130. M. Poulsen, A.N.M. Bot and J.J. Boomsma (2003) The effect of metapleural gland secretion on the growth of a mutualistic bacterium on the cuticle of leaf-cutting ants. Naturwissenschaften 90 406-409.
131. R. Rajagopal, N. Arora, S. Sivakumar, N.G. Rao, S.A. Nimbalkar and R.K. Bhatnagar (2009) Resistance of Helicoverpa armigera to Cry1Ac toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis is due to improper processing of the protoxin. Biochem. J. 419 309-316.
132. J.B.J. van Rensburg (2007) First report of field resistance by stem borer, Busseola fusca (Fuller) to Bt-transgenic maize. S. Afr. J. Plant Soil 24 147-151.
133. J. van Rie, W.H. McGaughey, D.E. Johnson, B.D. Barnett and H. Van Mellaert (1990) Mechanism of insect resistance to the microbial insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis. Science 247 72-74.
134. J. Rodcharoen and M.S. Mulla (1995) Comparative ingestion rates of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera, Culicidae) susceptible and resistant to Bacillus sphaericus. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 66 242-248.
135. J. Rolff and S.E. Reynolds (Eds) (2009) Insect Infection and Immunity: Evolution, Ecology, and Mechanisms Oxford: Oxford University Press
136. J. Royet (2004) Infectious non-self recognition in invertebrates: lessons from Drosophila and other insect models. Mol. Immunol. 41 1063-1075.
137. J. Royet (2004) Drosophila melanogaster innate immunity: an emerging role for peptidoglycan recognition proteins in bacteria detection. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 61 537-546.
138. O. Ruepell, M.K. Hayworth and N.P. Ross (2010) Altruistic self-removal of health-compromised honey bee workers from their hive. J. Evol. Biol. 23 1538-1546.
139. L.R. Sabin, S.L. Hanna and S. Cherry (2010) Innate antiviral immunity in Drosophila. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 22 4-9.
140. A.H. Sayyed, G. Moores, N. Crickmore and D.J. Wright (2008) Cross-resistance between a Bacillus thuringiensis Cry toxin and non-Bt insecticides in the diamondback moth. Pest Manag. Sci. 64 813-819.
141. E. Schnepf, N. Crickmore, J. Van Rie, D. Lereclus, J. Baum, J. Feitelson, D.R. Zeigler and D.H. Dean (1998) Bacillus thuringiensis and its pesticidal crystal proteins. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 62 775-806.
142. K.S. Shelby and H.J.R. Popham (2008) Cloning and characterization of the secreted hemocytic prophenoloxidases of Heliothis virescens. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 69 127-142.
143. A.M. Shelton, P. Wang, J.-Z. Zhao and R.T. Roush (2007) Resistance to insect pathogens and strategies to manage resistance: an update. L.A. Lacey, H.K. Kaya (Eds) Field Manual of Techniques in Invertebrate Pathology Dordrecht: Springer 793-811.
144. S. Siozos, P. Sapountzis, P. Loannidis and K. Bourtzis (2008) Wolbachia symbiosis and insect immune response. Insect Sci. 15 89-100.
145. S. Sivasupramaniam, G.P. Head, L. English, Y.J. Li and T.T. Vaughn (2007) A global approach to resistance monitoring. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 95 224-226.
146. S.D. Stewart, J.J. Adamczyk Jr., K.S. Knighten and F.M. Davis (2001) Impact of Bt cottons expressing one or two insecticidal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner on growth and survival of noctuid (Lepidoptera) larvae. J. Econ. Entomol. 94 752-760.
147. N.P. Storer, J.M. Babcock, M. Schlenz, T. Meade, G.D. Thompson, J.W. Bing and R.M. Huckaba (2010) Discovery and characterization of field resistance to Bt maize: Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Puerto Rico. J. Econ. Entomol. 103 1031-1038.
148. A. Stow and A.J. Beattie (2008) Chemical and genetic defenses against disease in insect societies. Brain Behav. Immun. 22 1009-1013.
149. M.R. Strand (2008) The insect cellular immune response. Insect Sci. 15 1-14.
150. J.A.I. Swanson, B. Torto, S.A. Kells, K.A. Mesce, J.H. Tumlinson and M. Spivak (2009) Odorants that induce hygienic behavior in honeybees: identification of volatile compounds in chalkbrood-infected honeybee larvae. J. Chem. Ecol. 35 1108-1116.
151. B.E. Tabashnik, N.L. Cushing, N. Finson and M.W. Johnson (1990) Field development of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 83 1671-1676.
152. B.E. Tabashnik, Y.-B. Liu, T. Malvar, D.G. Heckel, L. Masson and J. Ferré (1998) Insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis: uniform or diverse? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. 353 1751-1756.
153. B.E. Tabashnik, Y. Carrière, T.J. Dennehy, S. Morin, M.S. Sisterson, R.T. Roush, A.M. Shelton and J.-Z. Zhao (2003) Insect resistance to transgenic Bt crops: lessons from the laboratory and field. J. Econ. Entomol. 96 1031-1038.
154. B.E. Tabashnik, J.A. Fabrick, S. Henderson, R.W. Biggs, C.M. Yafuso, M.E. Nyboer, N.M. Manhardt, L.A. Coughlin, J. Sollome, Y. Carrière, T.J. Dennehy and S. Morin (2006) DNA screening reveals pink bollworm resistance to Bt cotton remains rare after a decade of exposure. J. Econ. Entomol. 99 1525-1530.
155. B.E. Tabashnik, J.B.J. Van Rensburg and Y. Carrière (2009) Field-evolved insect resistance to Bt crops: definition, theory, and data. J. Econ. Entomol. 102 2011-2025.
156. A. Takehana, T. Yano, S. Mita, A. Kotani, Y. Oshima and S. Kurata (2004) Peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP)-LE and PGRP-LC act synergistically in Drosophila immunity. EMBO J. 23 4690-4700.
157. J.D. Tang, S. Gilboa, R.T. Roush and A.M. Shelton (1997) Inheritance, stability, and lack-of-fitness costs of field-selected resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis in diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) from Florida. J. Econ. Entomol. 90 732-741.
158. S.R. Thompson, R.L. Brandenburg and G.T. Roberson (2007) Entomopathogenic fungi detection and avoidance by mole crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae). Environ. Entomol. 36 165-172.
159. A.V. Toledo, A.M. Alippi and A.M.M. de Remes Lenicov (2011) Growth inhibition of Beauveria bassiana by bacteria isolated from the cuticular surface of the corn leafhopper, Dalbulus maidis and the planthopper, Delphacodes kuscheli, two important vectors of maize pathogens. J. Insect Sci. 11 29.
160. L.V. Ugelvig and S. Cremer (2007) Social prophylaxis: group interaction promotes collective immunity in ant colonies. Curr. Biol. 17 1967-1971.
161. R.H.J. Verkerk and D.J. Wright (1996) Effects of interactions between host plants and selective insecticides on larvae of Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae) in the laboratory. Pestic. Sci. 46 171-181.
162. A. Vilcinskas (2010) Lepidopterans as model mini-hosts for human pathogens and as a resource for peptide antibiotics. M.R. Goldsmith, F. Marec (Eds) Molecular Biology and Genetics of the Lepidoptera Boca Raton: CRC Press 293-306.
163. D.W. Watson, B.A. Mullens and J.J. Petersen (1993) Behavioral fever response of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) to infection by Entomophthora muscae (Zygomycetes: Entomophthrorales). J. Invertebr. Pathol. 61 10-16.
164. D.J. Wright, M. Iqbal, F. Granero and J. Ferré (1997) A change in a single midgut receptor in the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) is only in part responsible for field resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki and B. thuringiensis subsp. aizawai. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63 1814-1819.
165. X. Xu, L. Yu and Y. Wu (2005) Disruption of a cadherin gene associated with resistance to Cry1Ac δ-endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis in Helicoverpa armigera. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71 948-954.
166. Y. Yang, H. Chen, Y. Wu, Y. Yang and S. Wu (2007) Mutated cadherin alleles from a field population of Helicoverpa armigera confer resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin Cry1Ac. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73 6939-6944.
167. J.Z. Zhao, J. Cao, Y. Li, H.L. Collins, R.T. Roush, E.D. Earle and A.M. Shelton (2003) Transgenic plants expressing two Bacillus thuringiensis toxins delay insect resistance evolution. Nat. Biotechnol. 21 1493-1497.