Diabetes and its comorbidities - Where East meets West

Nature Reviews Endocrinology

Volumn 9, Issue 9, 2013, Pages 537-547

  Kong, Alice P S ^a   Xu, Gang ^a   Brown, Nicola ^b   So, Wing Yee ^a   Ma, Ronald C W ^a   Chan, Juliana C N ^b  

^a CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

^b DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLUCOSE; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LIPID;

AGED; ALBUMINURIA; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CELL DESTRUCTION; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); COMORBIDITY; CULTURAL FACTOR; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; DIABETIC OBESITY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; HOLISTIC CARE; HUMAN; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; LIPID BLOOD LEVEL; MIGRATION; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PANCREAS ISLET BETA CELL; PERSONALIZED MEDICINE; PREGNANCY DIABETES MELLITUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; ASIA; COMORBIDITY; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; HEPATITIS B; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; OBESITY; SMOKING;

EID: 84882730575     PISSN: 17595029     EISSN: 17595037     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrendo.2013.102     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. Juonala, M. et al. Childhood adiposity, adult adiposity, and cardiovascular risk factors. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 1876-1885 (2011).
2. Tirosh, A. et al. Adolescent BMI trajectory and risk of diabetes versus coronary disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 1315-1325 (2011).
3. Nishi, Y. et al. Insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity in Japanese subjects with impaired fasting glucose and isolated fasting hyperglycemia. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 70, 46-52 (2005).
4. King, G. L. et al. Understanding and addressing unique needs of diabetes in Asian Americans, native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders. Diabetes Care 35, 1181-1188 (2012).
5. Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration et al. Diabetes mellitus, fasting glucose, and risk of cause-specific death. N. Engl. J. Med. 364, 829-841 (2011).
6. Chan, J. C. et al. Diabetes in Asia: epidemiology, risk factors, and pathophysiology. JAMA 301, 2129-2140 (2009).
7. Misra, A. & Khurana, L. Obesity and the metabolic syndrome in developing countries. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 93 (Suppl. 1), S9-S30 (2008).
8. Ramachandran, A., Ma, R. C. W. & Snehalatha, C. Diabetes in Asia. Lancet 375, 408-418 (2010).
9. Yoon, K. H. et al. Epidemic obesity and type 2 diabetes in Asia. Lancet 368, 1681-1688 (2006).
10. McCarthy, M. I. Genomics, type 2 diabetes, and obesity. N. Engl. J. Med. 363, 2339-2350 (2010).
11. Cho, Y. S. et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies identifies eight new loci for type 2 diabetes in east Asians. Nat. Genet. 44, 67-72 (2011).
12. Cho, Y. S. et al. A large-scale genome-wide association study of Asian populations uncovers genetic factors influencing eight quantitative traits. Nat. Genet. 41, 527-534 (2009).
13. Kingsmore, S. F., Lindquist, I. E., Mudge, J., Gessler, D. D. & Beavis, W. D. Genome-wide association studies: progress and potential for drug discovery and development. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 7, 221-230 (2008).
14. Wasserman, W. W. & Sandelin, A. Applied bioinformatics for the identification of regulatory elements. Nat. Rev. Genet. 5, 276-287 (2004).
15. Volkmar, M. et al. DNA methylation profiling identifies epigenetic dysregulation in pancreatic islets from type 2 diabetic patients. EMBO J. 31, 1405-1426 (2012).
16. Toperoff, G. et al. Genome-wide survey reveals predisposing diabetes type 2-related DNA methylation variations in human peripheral blood. Hum. Mol. Genet. 21, 371-383 (2012).
17. Gaulton, K. J. et al. A map of open chromatin in human pancreatic islets. Nat. Genet. 42, 255-259 (2010).
18. Lawless, M. W., O'Byrne, K. J. & Gray, S. G. Histone deacetylase inhibitors target diabetes via chromatin remodeling or as chemical chaperones? Curr. Diabetes Rev. 5, 201-209 (2009).
19. Najafi-Shoushtari, S. H. MicroRNAs in cardiometabolic disease. Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 13, 202-207 (2011).
20. Shaw, J. E., Sicree, R. A. & Zimmet, P. Z. Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 87, 4-14 (2010).
21. Ma, R. C. W. & Chan, J. C. N. Pregnancy and diabetes scenario around the world: China. Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet. 104 (Suppl. 1), S42-S45 (2009).
22. Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., Cooper, C. & Thornburg, K. L. Effect of in utero and early-life conditions on adult health and disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 61-73 (2008).
23. Li, Y. et al. Exposure to the Chinese famine in early life and the risk of hyperglycemia and type 2 diabetes in adulthood. Diabetes 59, 2400-2406 (2010).
24. Lee, Z. S. K. et al. Plasma insulin, growth hormone, cortisol and central obesity among young Chinese Type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 22, 1450-1457 (1999).
25. Lee, Z. S. K. et al. Urinary epinephrine and norepinephrine with obesity, insulin and the metabolic syndrome in Hong Kong Chinese. Metabolism 50, 135-143 (2001).
26. Tong, P. C. Y. et al. Low testosterone and insulin-like growth factor-I but high C-reactive protein are independent predictors for metabolic syndrome In Chinese middle-aged men with a family history of type 2 diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90, 6418-6423 (2005).
27. Sea, M. M., Woo. J., Tong, P. C., Chow, C. C. & Chan, J. C. Associations between food variety and body fatness in Hong Kong Chinese adults. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 23, 404-413 (2004).
28. Kong, A. P. et al. Association between physical activity and cardiovascular risk in Chinese youth independent of age and pubertal stage. BMC Public Health 10, 303 (2010).
29. Dabelea, D. et al. Etiological approach to characterization of diabetes type: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. Diabetes Care 34, 1628-1633 (2011).
30. Ng, M. C. et al. Familial early-onset type 2 diabetes in Chinese patients: obesity and genetics have more significant roles than autoimmunity. Diabetes Care 24, 663-671 (2001).
31. Zhou, J. et al. Study on prevalence of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults and its relationship with metabolic syndrome [Chinese]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 89, 1250-1254 (2009).
32. Chan, J. C. & Ng, M. C. Lessons learned from young-onset diabetes in China. Curr. Diab. Rep. 3, 101-107 (2003).
33. Lan, H. et al. Anti-inflammatory effects of exendin-4, a glucagon-like peptide-1 analog, on human peripheral lymphocytes in patients with type 2 diabetes. J. Diabetes Invest. (in press).
34. Mendall, M. A. Inflammatory responses and coronary heart disease. BMJ 316, 953-954 (1998).
35. Pickup, J. Inflammation and activated innate immunity in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 27, 813-823 (2004).
36. Pozzilli, P. & Guglielmi, C. Double diabetes: a mixture of type 1 and type 2 diabetes in youth. Endocr. Dev. 14, 151-166 (2009).
37. Patterson, C. C., Dahlquist, G. G., Gyurus, E., Green, A. & Soltesz, G. Incidence trends for childhood type 1 diabetes in Europe during 1989-2003 and predicted new cases 2005-20: a multicentre prospective registration study. Lancet 373, 2027-2033 (2009).
38. Patterson, C. et al. Trends in childhood type 1 diabetes incidence in Europe during 1989-2008: evidence of non-uniformity over time in rates of increase. Diabetologia 55, 2142-2147 (2012).
39. Wong, G. W. K., Leung, S. S. F. & Opphenheimer, S. J. Epidemiology of IDDM in southern Chinese children in Hong Kong. Diabetes Care 16, 926-928 (1993).
40. Kong, A. P. S. & Chan, J. C. N. in Textbook of Diabetes 4th edn (eds Holt, R. I., Cockram, C. S., Flyvberg, A. & Goldstein, B. J.) 152-159 (Blackwell Publishing, 2010).
41. Butler, A. E. et al. Beta-cell deficit and increased beta-cell apoptosis in humans with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 52, 102-110 (2003).
42. Yoon, K. H. et al. Selective beta-cell loss and alpha-cell expansion in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in Korea. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88, 2300-2308 (2003).
43. Sakuraba, H. et al. Reduced beta-cell mass and expression of oxidative stress-related DNA damage in the islet of Japanese Type II diabetic patients. Diabetologia 45, 85-96 (2002).
44. Zhao, H. L. et al. Prevalence and clinicopathological characteristics of islet amyloid in chinese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 52, 2759-2766 (2003).
45. Zhao, H. L. et al. Amyloid oligomers in diabetic and nondiabetic human pancreas. Transl. Res. 153, 24-32 (2009).
46. Sheu, W. H. et al. Effect of weight loss on proinflammatory state of mononuclear cells in obese women. Obesity (Silver Spring) 16, 1033-1038 (2008).
47. Hofsø, D. et al. Beta cell function after weight loss: a clinical trial comparing gastric bypass surgery and intensive lifestyle intervention. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 164, 231-238 (2011).
48. Morrish, N. J., Wang, S., Stevens, L. K., Fuller, J. H. & Keen, H. Mortality and causes of death in the WHO Multinational Survey of Vascular Diseases in Diabetes. Diabetologia 44 (Suppl. 2), S14-S21 (2001).
49. Chi, Z., Lee, E., Lu, M., Keen, H. & Bennett, P. Vascular disease prevalence in diabetic patients in China: standardised comparison with the 14 centres in the WHO Multinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetes. Diabetologia 44 (Suppl. 2), S82-S86 (2001).
50. Yang, X. et al. Development and validation of stroke risk equation for Hong Kong Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes: the Hong Kong Diabetes Registry. Diabetes Care 30, 65-70 (2007).
51. Yang, X. et al. Development and validation of a total coronary heart disease risk score in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Cardiol. 101, 596-601 (2008).
52. Anderson, K. M., Castelli, W. P. & Levy, D. Cholesterol and mortality-30 years of follow-up from the Framingham Study. JAMA 257, 2176-2180 (1987).
53. Kannel, W. B. et al. Systolic blood pressure, arterial rigidity, and risk of stroke. The Framingham study. JAMA 245, 1225-1229 (1981).
54. Chronic Kidney Disease Prognosis Consortium et al. Association of estimated glomerular filtration rate and albuminuria with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in general population cohorts: a collaborative meta-analysis. Lancet 375, 2073-2081 (2010).
55. Wu, A. Y. et al. An alarmingly high prevalence of diabetic nephropathy in Asian type 2 diabetic patients: the MicroAlbuminuria Prevalence (MAP) Study. Diabetologia 48, 17-26 (2005).
56. Parving, H. H. et al. Prevalence and risk factors for microalbuminuria in a referred cohort of type II diabetic patients: a global perspective. Kidney Int. 69, 2057-2063 (2006).
57. Lora, C. M. et al. Progression of CKD in Hispanics: potential roles of health literacy, acculturation, and social support. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 58, 282-290 (2011).
58. Wen, C. P. et al. All-cause mortality attributable to chronic kidney disease: a prospective cohort study based on 462 293 adults in Taiwan. Lancet 371, 2173-2182 (2008).
59. Clarke, P. M. et al. Event rates, hospital utilization, and costs associated with major complications of diabetes: a multicountry comparative analysis. PLoS Med. 7, e1000236 (2010).
60. Chan, J. C. et al. The Complexity of Vascular and Non-Vascular Complications of Diabetes: The Hong Kong Diabetes Registry. Curr. Cardiovasc. Risk Rep. 5, 230-239 (2011).
61. Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group et al. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 358, 2545-2559 (2008).
62. ADVANCE Collaborative Group et al. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 358, 2560-2572 (2008).
63. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 352, 837-853 (1998).
64. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patient with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet 352, 854-865 (1998).
65. Kong, A. P. et al. Assessment of glomerular filtration rate in addition to albuminuria is important in managing type II diabetes. Kidney Int. 69, 383-387 (2006).
66. Wang, F., Ye, P., Luo, L., Xiao, W. & Wu, H. Association of risk factors for cardiovascular disease and glomerular filtration rate: a community-based study of 4,925 adults in Beijing. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 25, 3924-3931 (2010).
67. Jia, W. et al. Prevalence and risk factors of albuminuria and chronic kidney disease in Chinese population with type 2 diabetes and impaired glucose regulation: Shanghai diabetic complications study (SHDCS). Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 24, 3724-3731 (2009).
68. Lou, Q. et al. Chronic kidney disease and associated cardiovascular risk factors in Chinese with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab. J. 36, 433-442 (2012).
69. Shan, Y., Zhang, Q., Liu, Z., Hu, X. & Liu, D. Prevalence and risk factors associated with chronic kidney disease in adults over 40 years: a population study from Central China. Nephrology (Carlton) 15, 354-361 (2010).
70. Buckalew, V. M. Jr & Freedman, B. I. Effects of race on albuminuria and risk of cardiovascular and kidney disease. Expert Rev. Cardiovasc. Ther. 9, 245-249 (2011).
71. Sabanayagam, C. et al. Ethnic disparities in prevalence and impact of risk factors of chronic kidney disease. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 25, 2564-2570 (2010).
72. Ong-Ajyooth, L., Vareesangthip, K., Khonputsa, P. & Aekplakorn, W. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in Thai adults: a national health survey. BMC Nephrol. 10, 35 (2009).
73. Ito, S. Cardiorenal connection in chronic kidney disease. Clin. Exp. Nephrol. 16, 8-16 (2012).
74. Luk, A. O. et al. Predictive role of polymorphisms in interleukin-5 receptor alpha-subunit, lipoprotein lipase, integrin A2 and nitric oxide synthase genes on ischemic stroke in type 2 diabetes-An 8-year prospective cohort analysis of 1327 Chinese patients. Atherosclerosis 215, 130-135 (2011).
75. Wang, Y. et al. Independent predictive roles of eotaxin Ala23Thr, paraoxonase 2 Ser311Cys and beta-adrenergic receptor Trp64Arg polymorphisms on cardiac disease in type 2 diabetes-an 8-year prospective cohort analysis of 1297 patients. Diabet. Med. 27, 376-383 (2010).
76. Wang, Y. et al. Predictive role of multilocus genetic polymorphisms in cardiovascular disease and inflammation-related genes on chronic kidney disease in type 2 diabetes-an 8-year prospective cohort analysis of 1163 patients. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 27, 190-196 (2012).
77. Wang, Y. et al. Prognostic effect of insertion/deletion polymorphism of the ace gene on renal and cardiovascular clinical outcomes in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 28, 348-354 (2005).
78. So, W. Y. et al. Aldose reductase genotypes and cardiorenal complications: an 8-year prospective analysis of 1,074 type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 31, 2148-2153 (2008).
79. Katakami, N. et al. Combined effect of oxidative stress-related gene polymorphisms on atherosclerosis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 379, 861-865 (2009).
80. Yamasaki, Y. et al. Combination of multiple genetic risk factors is synergistically associated with carotid atherosclerosis in Japanese subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 29, 2445-2451 (2006).
81. Mooyaart, A. L. et al. Genetic associations in diabetic nephropathy: a meta-analysis. Diabetologia 54, 544-553 (2011).
82. Katakami, N. et al. Accumulation of gene polymorphisms related to plaque disruption and thrombosis is associated with cerebral infarction in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 33, 390-395 (2010).
83. de Boer, I. H. et al. Temporal trends in the prevalence of diabetic kidney disease in the United States. JAMA 305, 2532-2539 (2011).
84. Ritz, E., Rychlik, I., Locatelli, F. & Halimi, S. End-stage renal failure in type 2 diabetes: A medical catastrophe of worldwide dimensions. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 34, 795-808 (1999).
85. Luk, A. O. Y. et al. Metabolic syndrome predicts new onset of chronic kidney disease in 5,829 patients with type 2 diabetes: a 5-year prospective analysis of the Hong Kong Diabetes Registry. Diabetes Care 31, 2357-2361 (2008).
86. Ma, R. C. et al. Genetic variants of the protein kinase C-beta 1 gene and development of end-stage renal disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. JAMA 304, 881-889 (2010).
87. Thomas, G. et al. Metabolic syndrome and kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 6, 2364-2373 (2011).
88. Chan, W. B. et al. The associations of body mass index, C-peptide and metabolic status in Chinese type 2 diabetic patients. Diabet. Med. 21, 349-353 (2004).
89. Boyko, E. J., Fujimoto, W. Y., Leonetti, D. L. & Newell-Morris, L. Visceral adiposity and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study among Japanese Americans. Diabetes Care 23, 465-471 (2000).
90. Iseki, K. Predictors of diabetic end-stage renal disease in Japan. Nephrology (Carlton) 10 (Suppl.), S2-S6 (2005).
91. Saiki, A. et al. Effect of weight loss using formula diet on renal function in obese patients with diabetic nephropathy. Int. J. Obes. (Lond.) 29, 1115-1120 (2005).
92. Ahima, R. S. & Flier, J. S. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 11, 327-332 (2000).
93. Schrijvers, B. F., De Vriese, A. S. & Flyvbjerg, A. From hyperglycemia to diabetic kidney disease: the role of metabolic, hemodynamic, intracellular factors and growth factors/cytokines. Endocr. Rev. 25, 971-1010 (2004).
94. Axelrod, J. & Reisine, T. D. Stress hormones: their interaction and regulation. Science 224, 452-459 (1984).
95. Masuzaki, H. et al. Transgenic amplification of glucocorticoid action in adipose tissue causes high blood pressure in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 112, 83-90 (2003).
96. Mathers, C. D. & Loncar, D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med. 3, e442 (2006).
97. Tong, P. C. et al. White blood cell count is associated with macro-and microvascular complications in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 27, 216-222 (2004).
98. Lao, T. T., Chan, B. C., Leung, W. C., Ho, L. F. & Tse, K. Y. Maternal hepatitis B infection and gestational diabetes mellitus. J. Hepatol. 47, 46-50 (2007).
99. Cheng, A. Y. et al. Chronic hepatitis B viral infection independently predicts renal outcome in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetologia 49, 1777-1784 (2006).
100. Crook, E., Penumalee, S., Gavini, B. & Filippova, K. Hepatitis C is a predictor of poorer renal survival in diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 28, 2187-2191 (2005).
101. Wong, C. K. et al. Aberrant cxpression of soluble co-stimulatory molecules and adhesion molecules in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy. J. Clin. Immunol. 28, 36-43 (2008).
102. Wong, C. K. et al. Aberrant activation profile of cytokines and mitogen-activated protein kinases in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 149, 123-131 (2007).
103. Zhao, H. L., Tong, P. C., Lai, F. M., Tomlinson, B. & Chan, J. C. Association of glomerulopathy with the 5'-end polymorphism of the aldose reductase gene and renal insufficiency in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes 53, 2984-2991 (2004).
104. Wong, T. Y. et al. Renal outcome in type 2 diabetic patients with or without coexisting nondiabetic nephropathies. Diabetes Care 25, 900-905 (2002).
105. Holman, R. R., Paul, S. K., Bethel, M. A., Matthews, D. R. & Neil, H. A. 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 1577-1589 (2008).
106. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Research Group. Retinopathy and nephropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes four years after a trial of intensive therapy. N. Engl. J. Med. 342, 381-389 (2000).
107. ACCORD Study Group et al. Effects of combination lipid therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 362, 1563-1574 (2010).
108. McCarty, M. F., Barroso-Aranda, J. & Contreras, F. NADPH oxidase mediates glucolipotoxicity-induced beta cell dysfunction-clinical implications. Med. Hypotheses 74, 596-600 (2010).
109. Yamagishi, S., Fukami, K., Ueda, S. & Okuda, S. Molecular mechanisms of diabetic nephropathy and its therapeutic intervention. Curr. Drug Targets 8, 952-959 (2007).
110. Nishikawa, D. et al. Normalizing mitochondrial superoxide production blocks three pathways of hyperglycemic damage. Nature 404, 787-790 (2000).
111. Cooper, M. E. & Jandeleit-Dahm, K. A. Lipids and diabetic renal disease. Curr. Diab. Rep. 5, 445-448 (2005).
112. Baum, L. et al. Effect of hepatic lipase -514C→T polymorphism and its interactions with apolipoprotein C3 -482C→T and apolipoprotein E exon 4 polymorphisms on the risk of nephropathy in chinese type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 28, 1704-1709 (2005).
113. Chan, J. C. et al. Effects of structured versus usual care on renal endpoint in type 2 diabetes: the SURE study: a randomized multi-centre translational study. Diabetes Care 32, 977-982 (2009).
114. Pischon, T. et al. General and abdominal adiposity and risk of death in Europe. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 2105-2120 (2008).
115. Warburg, O. On the origin of cancer cells. Science 123, 309-314 (1956).
116. Yang, X. L. et al. Associations of hyperglycaemia and insulin usage with the risk of cancer in type 2 diabetes: the Hong Kong diabetes registry. Diabetes 59, 1254-1260 (2010).
117. Yang, X. et al. Diabetes and cancer: the mechanistic implications of epidemiological analyses from the Hong Kong Diabetes Registry. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 28, 379-387 (2012).
118. Reuter, S., Gupta, S. C., Chaturvedi, M. M. & Aggarwal, B. B. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer: how are they linked? Free Radic. Biol. Med. 49, 1603-1616 (2010).
119. So, W. Y. et al. Risk factors in V-shaped risk associations with all-cause mortality in type 2 diabetes-The Hong Kong Diabetes Registry. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 24, 238-246 (2008).
120. Gaede, P., Lund-Andersen, H., Parving, H. H. & Pedersen, O. Effect of a multifactorial intervention on mortality in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 358, 580-591 (2008).
121. Chan, J. C. et al. Multifaceted determinants for achieving glycemic control: the International Diabetes Management Practice Study (IDMPS). Diabetes Care 32, 227-233 (2009).
122. So, W. Y. & Chan, J. C. N. in Textbook of Diabetes 4th edn (eds Holt, R. I., Cockram, C. S., Flyvberg, A. & Goldstein, B. J.) 969-983 (Blackwell Publishing, 2010).
123. Fisher, E. B., Chan, J. C., Nan, H., Sartorius, N. & Oldenburg, B. Co-occurrence of diabetes and depression: conceptual considerations for an emerging global health challenge. J. Affect. Disord. 142 (Suppl.), S56-S66 (2012).
124. The ORIGIN Trial Investigators et al. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 367, 319-328 (2012).
125. Chan, J. C. What have we learnt from recent blood glucose lowering megatrials. J. Diabetes Invest. 2, 1-5 (2011).
126. Deveugele, M., Derese A., van den Brink-Muinen, A., Bensing, J. & De Maeseneer, J. Consultation length in general practice: cross sectional study in six European countries. BMJ 325, 72 (2002).
127. Wagner, E. H. & Groves, T. Care for chronic diseases. BMJ 325, 913-914 (2002).
128. Katon, W. J. et al. Collaborative care for patients with depression and chronic illnesses. N. Engl. J. Med. 363, 2611-2620 (2010).
129. Funnell, M. M. & Anderson, R. M. Changing office practice and health care systems to facilitate diabetes self-management. Curr. Diab. Rep. 3, 127-133 (2003).
130. Tricco, A. C. et al. Effectiveness of quality improvement strategies on the management of diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 379, 2252-2261 (2012).
131. Fisher, E. B., Earp, J. A., Maman, S. & Zolotor, A. Cross-cultural and international adaptation of peer support for diabetes management. Fam. Pract. 27 (Suppl. 1), i6-i16 (2010).
132. Heisler, M., Vijan, S., Makki, F. & Piette, J. D. Diabetes control with reciprocal peer support versus nurse care management: a randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 153, 507-515 (2010).
133. Chan, J. et al. Peer Support (PEARL) reduced hospitalizations in high risk type 2 diabetic patients receiving structured care (JADE). J. Diabetes Invest. 3, 133 (2012).
134. Sartarius, N. & Cimino, L. The Co-Occurrence of Diabetes and Depression: An example of the worldwide epidemic of comorbidity of mental and physical illness. Ann. Acad. Med. Singapore 41, 430-431 (2012).
135. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 329, 977-986 (1993).
136. So, W. Y. et al. Effects of protocol-driven care versus usual outpatient clinic care on survival rates in patients with type 2 diabetes. Am. J. Manag. Care 9, 606-615 (2003).
137. Leung, W. et al. The reonprotective effects of structured care in a clinical trial setting in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 19, 2519-2525 (2004).
138. Wu, J. Y. et al. Effectiveness of telephone counselling by a pharmacist in reducing mortality in patients receiving polypharmacy: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 333, 522 (2006).
139. Leung, W. Y., So, W. Y., Tong, P. C., Chan, N. N. & Chan, J. C. N. Effects of structured care by a pharmacist-diabetes specialist team in patients with type 2 diabetic nephropathy. Am. J. Med. 118, 1414 (2005).
140. Ko, G. T. et al. From design to implementation-the Joint Asia Diabetes Evaluation (JADE) program: a descriptive report of an electronic web-based diabetes management program. BMC Med. Inform. Decis. Mak. 10, 26 (2010).
141. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. UK Prospective Diabetes Study 16. Overview of 6 years' therapy for Type II diabetes: a progressive disease. Diabetes 44, 1249-1258 (1995).
142. Del Prato, S. Megatrials in type 2 diabetes. From excitement to frustration? Diabetologia 52, 1219-1226 (2009).
143. Inzucchi, S. E. et al. Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 Diabetes: a patient-centered approach: position statement of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Diabetes Care 35, 1364-1379 (2012).
144. Pozzilli, P. et al. The A1C and ABCD of glycaemia management in type 2 diabetes: a physician's personalized approach. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 26, 239-44 (2010).
145. van Olmen, J. et al. The growing caseload of chronic life-long conditions calls for a move towards full self-management in low-income countries. Global Health 7, 38 (2011).
146. Gu, D. et al. Prevalence of diabetes and impaired fasting glucose in the Chinese adult population: International Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease in Asia (InterASIA). Diabetologia 46, 1190-1198 (2003).
147. Qiao, Q. et al. Age- and sex-specific prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose regulation in 11 Asian cohorts. Diabetes Care 26, 1770-1780 (2003).
148. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 30 (Suppl. 1), S4-S41 (2007).
149. Laakso, M. & Pyörälä, K. Age of onset and type of diabetes. Diabetes Care 8, 114-117 (1985).
150. Polonsky, K. S., Sturis, J. & Bell, G. I. Seminars in Medicine of the Beth Israel Hospital, Boston. Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus-a genetically programmed failure of the beta cell to compensate for insulin resistance. N. Engl. J. Med. 334, 777-783 (1996).
151. Fujimoto, W. et al. Susceptibility to development of central adiposity among populations. Obes. Res. 3 (Suppl. 2), 179S-186S (1995).
152. WHO Expert Consultation. Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies. Lancet 363, 157-163 (2004).
153. Fujiyoshi, P. T., Michalek, J. E. & Matsumura, F. Molecular epidemiologic evidence for diabetogenic effects of dioxin exposure in U. S. Air force veterans of the Vietnam war. Environ. Health Perspect. 114, 1677-1683 (2006).
154. Lee, D. H., Steffes, M. W. & Jacobs, D. R. Jr. Can persistent organic pollutants explain the association between serum gamma-glutamyltransferase and type 2 diabetes? Diabetologia 51, 402-407 (2008).
155. Chen, C. et al. Arsenic and diabetes and hypertension in human populations: a review. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 222, 298-304 (2007).
156. Bonadonna, R. & De Fronzo, R. Glucose metabolism in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab. 17, 112-135 (1991).
157. Cho, Y., Lee, J. Y., Park, K. S. & Nho, C. W. Genetics of Type 2 diabetes in East Asian Populations. Curr. Diab. Rep. 12, 686-696 (2012).
158. Ma, R. et al. Genome-wide association study in Chinese identifies a susceptibility locus for type 2 diabetes at 7q32 near PAX4. Diabetologia (in press).
159. Ng, M. C. et al. Implication of genetic variants near TCF7L2, SLC30A8, HHEX, CDKAL1, CDKN2A/B, IGF2BP2, and FTO in type 2 diabetes and obesity in 6,719 Asians. Diabetes 57, 2226-2233 (2008).
160. Ng, M. C. et al. Ethnic differences in the linkage disequilibrium and distribution of single nucleotide polymorphisms in 35 candidate genes for cardiovascular diseases. Genomics 83, 559-565 (2004).
161. Tong, P. C. et al. Use of anti-diabetic drugs and glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes-The Hong Kong Diabetes Registry. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 82, 346-352 (2008).
162. Kim, Y. G. et al. Differences in the glucose-lowering efficacy of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors between Asians and non-Asians: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologica 56, 696-708 (2013).
163. Reed, M. et al. Outpatient electronic health records and the clinical care and outcomes of patients with diabetes mellitus. Ann. Intern. Med. 157, 482-489 (2012).