'A conflict of interest'? A critical examination of artisanal/large-scale miner relations in sub-Saharan Africa

Natural Resource Investment and Africa's Development

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 134-158

  Hilson, Gavin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84881907207     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (83)

1. Here, 'ASM' refers to the most rudimentary branch of the mining sector in developing countries. Throughout the chapter, 'artisanal mining' and 'small-scale mining' are used interchangeably.
2. The IFC has helped finance a number of large-scale mining projects in sub-Saharan Africa, including the Ahafo Mine in Ghana and the Tulu Kapi Gold Mine in Ethiopia.For a list of these projects, see http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/coc.nsf/content/Project-Database?OpenDocument&Region=Sub-Saharan Africa (accessed 14 March 2010).
3. See International Labour Organization (ILO) (1999), Social and Labour Issues in Small-Scale Mines, Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines, International Labour Organization, Sectoral Activities Program (Geneva: International Labour Office); Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) (2002) Breaking New Ground, Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) Group, International Institute for Environment and Development (London: Earthscan Publications); and
4. Hilson, G. and Potter, C.(2003), 'Why is Illegal Gold Mining Activity so Ubiquitous throughout Rural Ghana?',African Development Review 15(2): 237-70.
5. See Tschakert, P. and Singha, K. (2007), 'Contaminated Identities: Mercury and Marginalization in Ghana's Artisanal Mining Sector', Geoforum 38: 1304-21.
6. Hilson, G. (2009), 'Small-Scale Mining, Poverty and Economic Development in sub-Saharan Africa: An Overview. Resources Policy 34 (1-2): 1-5.
7. There are several very comprehensive critiques produced on the blueprint for mine development in sub-Saharan Africa. One of the more detailed assessments is Pegg, S.(2006), 'Mining and Poverty Reduction: Transforming Rhetoric into Reality', Journal of Cleaner Production 14 (3-4): 376-87.
8. See CNN Wire Staff , 'Illegal Gold Mining Leads to Scores of Deaths in Northern Nigeria', located at http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/06/05/nigeria.lead.poisoning/index.html?i.
9. See, for example, Akabzaa, T. and Daramani, A. (2001), 'Impact of Mining Sector Investment in Ghana: A Study of the Tarkwa Mining Region', Draft Report for SAPRIN, Washington, DC. Akabzaa and Daramani (2001) profile the Ghana case, arguing that 'many mining companies hold large tracts of land that would otherwise be available to farmers' (p. 65) and 'at the same time . . . do not provide enough jobs to match the total number of people laid off from agriculture because of the impact of mining' (p. 45). Several NGOs have further explored this issue in Ghana, including the UK-based organization Mines and Communities (see http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=9045, accessed 12 April 2010) and Friends of the Earth International (see http://www.foei.org/en/resources/link/101/e1011213.html, accessed 13 April 2010), whilst others have made similar cases elsewhere, a case in point being ActionAid's advocacy work on the communities in Limpopo in South Africa (see http://www.actionaid.org/main.aspx?PageID=685, accessed 29 April 2010).
10. The term garimpeiro was popularized in the 1980s, during the heyday of the gold rush in Brazil. It was used, and still continues to be used, as a label for a gold or precious stone seeker in not only Brazil but also Mozambique and Angola.Artisanal/large-scale miner relations
11. See Maponga, O. and Ngorima, C.F. (2003), 'Overcoming Environmental Problems in the Gold Panning Sector Through Legislation and Education: the Zimbabwean Experience', Journal of Cleaner Production 11 (2): 147-57; and
12. Fisher, E. (2007),'Occupying the Margins: Labour Integration and Social Exclusion in Artisanal Mining in Tanzania', Development and Change 38(4): 735-60.
13. See Bryceson, D.F. and Jonnson, J. (2010), 'Gold Digging Careers in Rural East Africa: Small-Scale Miners' Livelihood Choices', World Development 38 (3): 379-92;and
14. Banchirigah, S.M. (2008), 'Challenges with Eradicating Illegal Mining in Ghana:A Perspective from the Grassroots', Resources Policy 33 (1): 29-38.
15. Hentschel, T. Nruschka, F. and Priester, F. (2002), Global Report on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining, Working Paper 70, Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) Project, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED),London; International Labour Organization (ILO) (1999) Social and Labour Issues in Small-Scale Mines, Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines, International Labour Organization, Sectoral Activities Program (Geneva: International Labour Office).
16. See Maconachie, R. and Binns, T. (2007), '"Farming Miners" or "Mining Farmers"?:Diamond Mining and Rural Development in Post-conflict Sierra Leone', Journal of Rural Studies 23: 367-80;
17. Kuditshini, J.T. (2008), 'Global Governance and Local Government in the Congo: the Role of the IMF, World Bank, the Multinationals and the Political Elites', International Review of Administrative Sciences 74: 195-216.
18. See Ross, M.L. (2004) 'What do we Know about Natural Resources and Civil War?',Journal of Peace Research, 41 (3): 337-56;
19. Le Billon, P. (2001), 'The Political Ecology of War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts', Political Geography 20: 561-84.
20. Crisp, B.F. and Kelly, M.J. (1999), 'The Socioeconomic Impacts of Structural Adjustment', International Studies Quarterly 43: 533-52.
21. Banchirigah, S.M. (2006), 'How have Reforms Fuelled the Expansion of Artisanal Mining? Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa', Resources Policy 31(3): 165-71.
22. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) (2003), Reports on Selected Themes in Natural Resources Development in Africa: Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Technology Challenges in Africa (Addis Ababa: United Nations Economic Commission for Africa), p. 1.
23. Mondlane, S. and D.S.M. Shoko (2003), 'The Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Mozambique', in G.M. Hilson (ed.), The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, pp. 265-80, at p. 267.
24. Dondeyne, S., Ndunguru, E., Rafael, P. and Bannerman, J. (2009), 'Artisanal Mining in Central Mozambique: Policy and Environmental Issues of Concern', Resources Policy 34 (1-2): 45-50, p. 47.
25. Dreschler, B. (2001), Small-scale Mining and Sustainable Development within the SADC Region, Working Paper 84 (London: Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) Project, International Institute for Environment and Development), p. 64.
26. Hilson, G. and Potter, C. (2005), 'Structural Adjustment and Subsistence Industry:Artisanal Gold Mining in Ghana', Development and Change 36(1): 103-31.
27. Maconachie, R. and Binns, T. (2007), '"Farming Miners" or "Mining Farmers"?:Diamond Mining and Rural Development in Post-conflict Sierra Leone', Journal of Rural Studies 23: 367-80;
28. Banchirigah, S.M. and Hilson, G. (2010), 'De-Agrarianization,Re-Agrarianization and Local Economic Development: Re-Orientating Livelihoods in African Artisanal Mining Communities', Policy Sciences 43 (2): 157-80.
29. Bryceson, D.F. (2002), 'The Scramble in Africa: Reorienting Rural Livelihoods', World Development 30 (5): 725-39.
30. International Labour Organization (ILO) (1999), Social and Labour Issues in Smallscale Mines, Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines, International Labour Organization, Sectoral Activities Program (Geneva: International Labour Office), p. 25.
31. Maponga, O. and Ngorima, C.F. (2003), 'Overcoming Environmental Problems in the Gold Panning Sector through Legislation and Education: the Zimbabwean Experience', Journal of Cleaner Production 11 (2): 147-57, pp. 148-9.
32. Mondlane, S. and D.S.M. Shoko (2003), 'The Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Mozambique', in: G.M. Hilson (ed.), The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, pp. 265-80, at p. 267.
33. World Bank (1995), Staff Appraisal Report, Republic of Ghana, Mining Sector Development and Environmental Project, World Bank Report No. 13881-GH, Industry and Energy Operations, West Central Africa Department, Africa Region, World Bank, Africa;
34. Banchirigah, S.M. (2008), 'Challenges with Eradicating Illegal Mining in Ghana: A Perspective from the Grassroots', Resources Policy 33 (1): 29-38.
35. Fisher, E. (2007), 'Occupying the Margins: Labour Integration and Social Exclusion in Artisanal Mining in Tanzania', Development and Change 38 (4): 735-60.
36. Dondeyne, S., Ndunguru, E., Rafael, P. and Bannerman, J. (2009), 'Artisanal Mining in Central Mozambique: Policy and Environmental Issues of Concern', Resources Policy 34 (1-2): 45-50.
37. World Bank (2004), Nigeria - Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project Staff Appraisal Document (Washington DC: World Bank).
38. World Bank (2009), Malawi: Mineral Sector Review, Source of Economic Growth and Development. Report No. 50160-MW (Washington DC: World Bank).
39. Hinton, J. (2005), Draft Summary Report: Artisanal and Small Scale Mining in Uganda:Key Issues, Constraints and Opportunities, Draft report prepared for the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, Department of Geological Survey and Mines,Entebbe, Uganda.
40. Hilson, G. and Yakovelva, N. (2007), 'Strained Relations: a Critical Analysis of the Mining Conflict in Prestea, Ghana', Political Geography 26 (1): 98-119;
41. Amankwah,R.K. and Anim-Sackey, C. (2003), 'Strategies for Sustainable Development of the Small-scale Gold and Diamond Mining Industry of Ghana', Resources Policy, 29 (3-4),131-8.
42. http://allafrica.com/stories/200909180196.html (accessed 10 November 2009).
43. http://www.mineweb.com/mineweb/view/mineweb/en/page504?oid=89380&sn=Detail (accessed 10 November 2009).
44. http://allafrica.com/stories/200906081297.html (accessed 10 November 2009).
45. http://news.myjoyonline.com/business/200911/38389.asp (accessed 10 November 2009).
46. Tschakert, P. and Singha, K. (2007), 'Contaminated Identities: Mercury and Marginalization in Ghana's Artisanal Mining Sector', Geoforum 38: 1304-21.
47. See Tschakert, P. and Singha, K. (2007), 'Contaminated Identities: Mercury and Marginalization in Ghana's Artisanal Mining Sector', Geoforum 38: 1304-21;
48. International Labour Organization (ILO) (1999), Social and Labour Issues in Small-Scale Mines, Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines, International Labour Organization, Sectoral Activities Program (Geneva: International Labour Office); Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) (2002), Breaking New Ground, Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) Group, International Institute for Environment and Development (London: Earthscan Publications).
49. World Bank (1992), A Strategy for African Mining (Washington DC: World Bank).
50. Kuditshini, J.T. (2008), 'Global Governance and Local Government in the Congo: the Role of the IMF, World Bank, the Multinationals and the Political Elites', International Review of Administrative Sciences 74: 195-216.
51. Campbell, B. (2003), 'Factoring in Governance is Not Enough: Mining Codes in Africa, Policy Reform and Corporate Responsibility', Minerals and Energy 18 (3): 2-13.
52. Aryee, B.N.A. (2001), 'Ghana's Mining Sector: its Contribution to the National Economy', Resources Policy 27 (2): 61-75.
53. Campbell, B. (2004), Regulating Mining in Africa: For Whose Benefit? (Uppsala,Sweden: Nordic African Institute); ?
54. Campbell, B. (2006), 'Good Governance, Security and Mining in Africa', Minerals & Energy 21 (1): 31-44;
55. Lange, S. (2006), Benefit Streams from Mining in Tanzania: Case Studies from Geita and Mererani (Bergen: Chr.Michelsen Institute);
56. Parker, R. and Wood, F. (2006), Hidden Treasure? In Search of Mali's Gold-mining Revenues (Washington DC: Oxfam America).
57. Hinton, J. (2005), Draft Summary Report: Artisanal and Small Scale Mining in Uganda:Key Issues, Constraints and Opportunities, draft report prepared for the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, Department of Geological Survey and Mines Entebbe, Uganda, pp. 8-9.
58. Pegg, S. (2003), Poverty Reduction or Poverty Exacerbation? World Bank Group Support for Extractive Industries in Africa, Washington DC: Oxfam America;
59. Campbell, B. (2006),'Good Governance, Security and Mining in Africa', Minerals & Energy 21 (1): 31-44.
60. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) (2002), Breaking New Ground, Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) Group, International Institute for Environment and Development (London: Earthscan Publications); and Hilson, G. and Potter, C. (2003), 'Why is Illegal Gold Mining Activity so Ubiquitous throughout Rural Ghana?', African Development Review 15(2): 237-70;
61. Kambani,S. (2003), Small-scale Mining and Cleaner Production Issues in Zambia', Journal of Cleaner Production 11 (2): 141-6.
62. Fisher, E. (2007), 'Occupying the Margins: Labour Integration and Social Exclusion in Artisanal Mining in Tanzania', Development and Change 38 (4): 735-60, pp. 736-7.
63. http://allafrica.com/stories/200810310724.html (accessed 1 December 2009).
64. Lange, S. (2006), Benefit Streams from Mining in Tanzania: Case Studies from Geita and Mererani (Bergen: Chr. Michelsen Institute).
65. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/0,,contentMDK:20212456~menuPK:463298~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336930,00.html (accessed 16 November 2009).
66. http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm?page=page_disp&pid=1914 (accessed 15 November 2009).
67. There is a long history of diamond mining in Ghana. In addition to implementation of a law for a diamond-digging licence in the 1970s, diamond marketing was a wellestablished agency by the mid-1980s, having received considerable attention from the government over the years. The Diamond Marketing Board was established in 1963 following implementation of Legislative Instrument 401, empowered with the responsibility of marketing all diamonds in Ghana. Unlike gold mining, which can be undertaken in all corners of Ghana, all diamond mining activity in the country is confined to the locality of Akwatia. The assistance provided to diamond mining over the years has been independent of mainstream support for mining, and even after laws were reformed for small-scale gold mining, small-scale diamond mining continued to be regulated and supported separately.
68. Hilson, G. and Potter, C. (2003), 'Why is Illegal Gold Mining Activity so Ubiquitous throughout Rural Ghana?', African Development Review 15 (2): 237-70;
69. Tschakert,P. and Singha, K. (2007), 'Contaminated Identities: Mercury and Marginalization in Ghana's Artisanal Mining Sector', Geoforum 38: 1304-21.
70. A corruption of the phrase 'gather and sell' which is used to describe artisanal mining.
71. See, for example, http://allafrica.com/stories/200910160957.html and http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/regional/artikel.php?ID=170047 (both accessed 23 November 2009).
72. See Hilson, G. and Potter, C. (2003), 'Why is Illegal Gold Mining Activity so Ubiquitous throughout Rural Ghana?', African Development Review 15 (2): 237-70;
73. Tschakert, P,and Singha, K. (2007), 'Contaminated Identities: Mercury and Marginalization in Ghana's Artisanal Mining Sector', Geoforum 38: 1304-21.
74. Mireku-Gyimah, D. and Suglo, R.S. (1993), 'The State of Gold Mining in Ghana', Transactions of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy Section A 102: A59-A67.
75. See Tsikata, F. (1997), 'The Vicissitudes of Mineral Policy in Ghana', Resources Policy 23 (1-2): 9-14.
76. Shortly after enacting the Small-Scale Gold Mining Law, the government established the Small-Scale Mining Project (SSMP), which was intended to provide the requisite institutional support to the industry. Its central pillar was the Minerals Commission,established under PNDCL 153 to help formulate government policy with regard to the exploration for and exploitation of minerals and to handle all public agreements relating to minerals. The remaining pillars of the SSMP are as follows: (1) the Precious Minerals and Marketing Corporation (PMMC), which was assigned all mineral purchasing-related responsibilities; (2) the Mines Department (now the Inspectorate Division of the Minerals Commission), put in charge of the industry's health and safety issues; and (3) the Geological Survey Department, commissioned to undertake important prospecting and geochemistry-related tasks.
77. See Hilson, G. and Potter, C. (2003), 'Why is Illegal Gold Mining activity so Ubiquitous throughout Rural Ghana? African Development Review 15 (2): 237-70;
78. Tschakert, P and Singha, K. (2007), Contaminated identities: Mercury and Marginalization in Ghana's Artisanal Mining Sector', Geoforum 38: 1304-21.
79. Aryee, B.N.A. (2001), 'Ghana's Mining Sector: its Contribution to the National Economy', Resources Policy 27 (2): 61-75.
80. Chamber of Mines (2006), Ghana Chamber of Mines Factoid 2006 (Accra: Ghana Chamber of Mines). See http://ghanachamberofmines.org/internet/index.php (accessed 13 September 2008).
81. International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) (2010), Working Together:How Large-Scale Mining can Engage with Artisanal and Small-Scale Miners (London:International Council on Mining and Metals).
82. For example, the suggestion to give small-scale miners tracts of land or access to the concessions is unlikely to be entertained by mining companies and their shareholders.
83. An initiative launched at its North Mara project. Its aim is to 'transform artisanal mining activities in Tanzania into regulated, productive and sustainable small-scale mining operations', www.barrick.com/Theme/Barrick/files/docs_csr/Beyond%20Borders%20-%20October%202008.pdf#page=6 (accessed 18 April 2010).